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HINTS 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION 



CABINET-MAKERS, UPHOLSTERERS, AND 



FURNITURE MEN GENERALLY. 







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TOGETHER WITH 



A DESCRIPTION OF ALL KINDS OF FINISHING. WITH FULL DIRECTIONS 

THEREFOR-VARNISHES— POLISHES— STAINS FOR WOOD-DYES 

FOR WOOD— GILDING AND SILVERING-RECEIPTS FOR THE 

FACTORY LACQUERS, METALS, MARBLES, ETC.— 

PICTURES, ENGRAVINGS, ETC— MISCELLANEOUS. 



MAY 21 1884 



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NEW YORK: 
THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY. 

1884. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Description of Cabinet-Making, Designing, Framing, Veneering, Inlay- 
ing, Carving, Reeding, Mouldings, Figures, Composition Ornaments, - 20 

Filling. — Fillers for Walnut, for Light Woods, for Cherry, for Oak, for Rose- 
wood, Sizing, ------.------25 

Application or Varnishes. — Brushes for Varnishing, Varnish Pan, - 29 

Rubbing, ----- ---.....30 

Flowing and Polishing.— Flowing, Varnish, Polishing, - ... 31 

Varieties of Finish. — Dead Finish, Varnish Finish, Wax Finish, Imitation 
Wax Finish, Ebony Finish, French Polishing, The Ingredients, French 
Polish, Improved Polish, Water-proof Polish, Prepared Spirits, Polish 
for Turner's Work, --- ----38 

Staining.— Black Stain, Brown Stain, Walnut Stain, Oak Stain. Rosewood 
Stain, Cherry Stain, Red Stain, Mahogany Stain, Surface Stains, Crim- 
son Stain, Purple Stain, Blue Stain, Green Stain, Yellow Stain, To Brighten 
Stains, -------------.43 

Dyeing Wood.— Black Dye, Bine Dye, Yellow Dye, Green Dye, Red Dye, 
Purple Dye, Liquid for Brightening and Setting Colors, Orange Dye, 
Silver Gray Dye, Gray Dye, - . - - - - - -"- -47 

Gilding, Silvering and Bronzing.— Gilding, The Requisites, Sizes, Oil- 
Size, Parchment-Size, Gold-Size, To Prevent Gold Adhering, Oil-Gild- 
ing, Burnish-Gilding. Preparing the Wood-work, Polishing, Applying the 
Size, Laying the Gold, Burnishing, Matting or Dead-Gold, Finishing, Shell- 
Gold, Silver-Size, Composition for Frames, Ornaments, To Manipulate 
Gold Leaf, Bronzing, ---------..55 

Graining and Color Work.— Graining. The Process, Grainin^-Grounds, 
Light Wainscot Oak, Darker Wainscot Oak, Dark Oak. Very Dark Oak, 
Mahogany, Rosewood, Bird's Eve Maple, Graining-Grounds. Mixinf 
Colors, Cream Color, Pearl Grev, Fawn. Buff, Straw, Drab, Purple, Violet, 
French Grey, Silver. Dark Chestnut, Salmon. Peach Blossom, Lead, Dark 
Lead, Chocolate, Light Yellow, Stone, Olive Green, Grass Green, Carna- 
tion, Imitation of Gold, Colors for Outlines of Ornaments, Tones, Tints, 
Shades, Tempera, Distemper, Color Harmony in Grained Work, Chinese 
White, Mixing White Lead, Varnish Green, - -69 

VARNISHES. 

Gums and TnEiR Qualities.— Amber, Anime, Copal, Oil Varnishes, Spirit 
Varnishes, Lac, Sandarac, Mastic, Damar, Resin, ----- 71 

The Solvents.— Linseed-Oil, Oil of Turpentine. Alcohol, Naphtha, - - 72 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Preparation of On, Varnishes. — Ccral Varnish, Artists' Virgin Copal, 
Cabinet Varnish, Uest Body Copal, Carriage Varnish, Wainscot Varnish, 
Pale Amber Varnish, .-...------82 

Preparation* of Spirit and Turpentine Varnishes.— Best White Hard 
Spirit Varnish, White Hard Varnish, White Spirit Varnish, Brown Hard 
Spirit Varnish, Hard-wood Lacquer, French Polish, Bleached Shellac, 
Lacquer for Brass, Colored Lacquers, Mastic Varnish, Turpentine Var- 
nish, Crystal Varnish, Paper Varnish, Water Varnish, Sealing- Wax Var- 
nish, Black Varnish, Varnish for Iron, Varnish for Cane and Basket Work, 96 

POLISH REVIVERS, ETC. 

Polish Revivers. — French Polish Revivers, Furniture Reviver, Furniture 
Cream, Furniture Paste, Several Receipts for Furniture Cream, White 
Furniture Cream, --------- - - . 98 

GLUE. 

Glue.— To Prepare Glue, Mixing Glue, Glue Pot, To Prevent Glue Crack- 
ing, Strong Glue to Resist Moisture, Portable Glue, - - - . - 101 

MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 

To Raise Old Veneers.— To Take Out Bruises in Furniture, To Make Paste 
for Laying Cloth or Leather, Cements for Stopping Flaws in Wood, Ma- 
hogany ; Colored Cement, Cement for Turners, Tracing Paper, Mounted 
Tracings, Cracks in Drawing Boards, To Temper Tools, Hardening Tools, 
To Cut Steel Scrapers, To Remedy Splits in Circular Saws, Brazing Band- 
Saws, Saw Sharpening, Oiling Tools, To Mark Tools, Varnish for Tools, 
Boiler Incrustation, Non-Conducting Coverings for Steam Pipes, To 
Harden Wood Pulleys, To Prevent Belts Slipping, Rasps, Soft Files, Amal- 
gam Varnish, Painting and Preserving Ironwork, Preparing Soft Solder, 
To Clean Silver Filigree, Bronzing on Metal. Polishing Metals. Imitation 
Marble, To Polish Marble, To Clean Marble, To Remove Stains from 
Marble, To Clean Pictures, Cleaning Varnished Pictures, Cleaning En- 
gravings, To Smooth a Damaged Picture, Embossed Gilding for Illumin- 
ating, Gold for Illuminating, To Stain Horn in Imitation of Tortoise Shell, 
To Stain Ivory or Bone Red, Black, Green, Blue, Yellow, To Soften Ivory, 
To Bleach Ivory, Artificial Ivory, Cement for Joining Leather, Cement for 
Leather and Wood, Cement for China, Cement for Glass, Cement for 
Aquariums, To Restore the Elasticity of Caned Chair Bottoms, Moths in 
Carpets, To Destroy Moths in Carpets, To Clean Carpets, To Make Parch- 
ment Transparent, Tinting on Parchment, India Ink Running, Erasing 
India Ink, To Make Carbon Paper. Removing Oil Stains from Tiles, To 
Polish Floors, Black Wax, Green Wax, To Polish Tortoise Shell or Horn, 
To Clean Looking-Glasses, To Remove Ink Stains, To Remove Stains from 
Wood, To Clean Velvet, To Remove Paint or Stain from Wood, To Re- 
move Varnish from Wood, Tests for Gilding, Anti-Attrition, To Remove 
Grease from Cloth, Putty, How to Boil Linseed-Oil, Mordants for Staining 
Wood, Picture Frames. Varnish for Tools, Painting on Zinc, Violin Var- 
nish, Staining Beech, Staining Mahogany, Bronzing Inlaid Work, Black 
Stain, Brown Stain, Red Stain, Walnut Stain, ------ 128 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION 

FOR CABINET-MAKERS, UPHOLSTERERS AND 
FURNITURE MEN. 



-:o:- 



CONSTRUCTIVE CABINET-MAKING. 




HE general term cabinet-making is the art of making all 
such parts of the furniture of a dwelling-house as are 
made of wood, together with the art of chair-making, 
etc., and in order to arrive at any degree of perfection, the knowl- 
edge of designing, carving, modelling, etc., is requisite. 

It has also been supposed that a knowledge of geometry, and 
particularly of that portion of it which treats of the description of 
curved lines, is of great use to the cabinet-maker; but, with the 
exception of a knowledge of perspective, and of a few simple 
methods of drawing common curves, geometry may be dispensed 
with, though it would be better to possess it. 

The best advice we can give the cabinet-maker, in acquiring a 
graceful, easy, and free method of drawing, is, to dra.w as much 
from nature, or from good casts, as possible. It is not of ma- 
terial consequence whether vegetable or animal forms be drawn, 
but a mixture of both is desirable, as they have very distinct 
characters, which will be easily traced in attempting to delineate 
them. 

General Remarks on Designs for Cabinet 

Work. — In design, the central or principal part of the object re- 
quires most notice. The other parts should be so far subordinate 



IO PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MARERS, 

to it as not to distract the attention from the centre ; and yet they 
should be so united in harmony with it as to be obviously essential 
to complete the design. 

The connection between the principal and the inferior portions 
of the designs should be preserved by the continuance of some of 
the leading lines of the principal part to the inferior ones ; and, 
whether these lines be straight or curved, they should never be so 
far interrupted by ornament as to render it doubtful whether or not 
they are continued ; and, as the idea of firmness or stability is a 
necessary accompaniment of good taste in the design of furniture, 
the leading lines of the principal part of the design should descend 
in such a manner to the base as to give an idea of firmness, as far 
as the nature of the thing requires it. 

Proportion, as it depends on the relative magnitude of parts, is, 
sometimes, wholly left to the good taste of the designer; and, when 
cases occur where it is within his power, one part in a design must 
form the principal object, and ought not to have a rival in magni- 
tude ; also, when the piece of furniture is seen in its best position, this 
principal part should be as near the centre of the whole as possible. 

The principal part of a design should be sufficiently prominent 
for the eye to pass from it to the whole, or the reverse, without 
perceiving the change of magnitude to be abrupt; and the same 
remark applies to the relation of the subordinate parts of the design 
to the principal one. 

If this attention be given to the proportion of the parts so that 
the eye may pass from the consideration of one to another, and not 
feel the change abrupt, the design will be pleasing. 

If too small a proportion be assigned to the principal part, the 
design will be flat and unmeaning. If the proportion be too large, 
the whole will be absorbed in the part, as a modern mansion is not 
unfrequently all portico. A due proportion of the principal part to 
the whole gives boldness and propriety. 

Richness is produced by introducing as much ornament as the 
object will bear, without destroying the relation between the plain 
and ornamental parts; a design, overcharged with ornament, be- 
comes frittered, and wants both variety and repose. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. II 

The opposite quality to richness is meagreness, or a deficiency of 
ornament ; and want of attention to its proportions. Between the 
extremes of overcharging and meagreness an immense variety of 
degrees of combination of ornamented with plain surfaces may be 
selected. 

When the ornament consists of moulded work only, the piece of 

I furniture is termed plain ; but in rich furniture the combined effect 

i of moulded and carved work is necessary. In either species, the 

proportions of the ornamental and plain parts to each other should 

be regulated by like principles as the magnitude of the parts. 

Colored Woods, Metals, Etc. — Sometimes richness of 
effect is no further attempted than is obtained by the natural beauty 
of the wood which is employed ; and when this natural beauty is 
considerable, this simple kind of furniture is most highly valued. 

But wood, so fine in color and figure, as alone to give richness 
of effect to furniture, is veiy rare, and still more frequently de- 
fective; hence, the more usual mode of combining different colored 
woods, or of metals and shells with woods, require some degree of 
attention. The prevailing combinations are formed by colored 
bands, lines, and ornaments of wood, or by lines, beads, or orna- 
ments of brass ; the brass being in many instances cut into beautiful 
forms and further embellished by engraved lines on its surface. 

The circumstances to be attended to in forming these combina- 
tions are harmony of color, due proportion of the colored parts to 
one another, and relief by contrast. 

Much depends on the color of the principal mass of the piece of 
work, which we call the predominating color. If this color be rich, 
very little variety of other colors should be added. On the con- 
trary, if the predominating color be light and delicate, it will bear to 
be enlivened and supported by contrast with fine lines or borders 
of an opposing color: taking care that the mass of opposing colors 
be so small as not to produce opposition instead of contrast; for 
contrast skilfully managed, gives force and lustre to the ground, 
while opposition destroys even its natural beauty. 

Framing. — Framing, in cabinet-making, requires the same 



12 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

precautions as in joinery, when it is required to form large surfaces, 
for, owing to shrinkage, and warping of wood, large even surfaces 
can be formed only by means of panelling. 

The width of the style of a frame should be one-sixth of the 
whole width of a compartment of the frame ; the tenons should be 
one-fourth of the thickness of the framing, and the width of a 
tenon not more than five times its thickness. 

But, where surfaces of considerable width are to be formed with- 
out an appearance of framing, whether those surfaces are to be 
veneered or not, we should avoid framing them with other pieces 
where the grain of the wood is in the contrary direction, for the dif- 
ference of the shrinkage of the two ways of the wood is so con- 
siderable, that it can scarcely be expected to stand without either 
warping or splitting when confined . Where warping is to be pre- 
vented, we strongly recommend that holes should be bored 
through, and strong iron wires inserted, at short distances apart, 
across the piece. These would act as clamps in preventing warp- 
ing, and, at the same time, would not be affected by the shrinkage 
in width. 

Angles are formed in various ways, depending chiefly on the ob- 
ject of the work. External angles of mouldings are either simply 
mitred or rebated, or both rebated and mitred together. Internal 
angles are generally grooved together, with the outer edges mitred. 
Where the front edge only is to be mitred, a dovetail groove is 
made, and rather narrower at the back than at the front, so that 
the tongue tightens as it is driven in. 

When a strong firm connection is wanted, and the wood is to be 
joined end to end, dovetailing is to be preferred. When the dove- 
tails are not to appear, they may be formed by the method called 
lap-dovetailing; and, when the dovetails are cut through, it be- 
comes the kind used to join the angle between the front and end 
of a drawer. When a joint is to appear as if it were mitred, the 
method of dovetailing employed is called mitre-dovetailing. The 
apparent edges are in this case always mitred to a depth of about 
an eighth of an inch. There is also the method of joining by keys; 
the parts being neatly mitred, then saw-kerfs are to be made for 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 13 

the slips of wood called keys, which are to be inserted with glue 
when the joint is put together. 

Drawers are mostly dovetailed together, but variously made in 
other respects. Well-seasoned wood should always be used, as 
otherwise the drawers are liable to break at the joints; the tenons 
should always be in the direction of the grain of the wood. In 
mortising, care must be taken that the mortise and tenon are neatly 
fitted, neither too loose or too tight, and the parts well glued when 
put together. 

Veneering, Banding, etc. — Veneering is the method of 
covering an inferior wood with a surface of a very superior kind, so 
that the parts of the article of furniture thus manufactured which 
meet the eye appear to the same advantage as if the whole work 
were of the best description. If this be well performed, it is very 
durable, looks well to the last, and is attainable at an expense con- 
siderably less than a similar article would cost if manufactured of 
the same wood throughout, but of an inferior quality. 

The principal requisite to ensure success in veneering, is to select 
well-seasoned wood for the ground, and to use the best and strongest 
glue. 

Veneers are worked either by a veneering hammer or by cauls. 
In veneering by the hammer, the ground should be warmed by the 
fire, and the outside of the veneer wetted with warm water or thin 
glue, with a -sponge, and the side to be laid covered with a coat of 
thin glue and warmed at the fire ; the veneer should be quickly laid 
on the ground and worked with the hammer, backwards and for- 
wards, till neither air or glue will come out. Veneering with the 
hammer is preferable when the veneers are straight and even, but 
as that is seldom the case, work is generally done with a caul. 

A caul is made of solid wood, shaped to the surface to be ve- 
neered; it should be well heated, then oiled and greased; it is 
screwed down upon the veneer, and the heat and pressure sends 
out the glue, causing the veneer to bed close to the ground. The 
veneers should be of an even thickness when worked by a caul, 
otherwise the glue will collect, and the work is liable to blister; it 
should not dry too quickly. 



14 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

To Raise Old Veneers. — In repairing old cabinets, and 
other furniture, workmen are sometimes at a loss to know how to 
get rid of those blisters which appear on the surface, in consequence 
of the glue under the veneer failing or causing the veneer to separ- 
ate from the ground in patches; and these blisters are frequently so 
situated, that, without separating the whole veneer from the ground, 
it is impossible to introduce any glue between them to relay it ; the 
great difficulty in this case is to separate the veneer from the ground 
without injuring it, as it adheres in many places too fast to 
separate without breaking it. We will here, therefore, show how 
this operation may be performed without difficulty, and the veneer 
preserved perfectly whole and uninjured, ready for relaying as a 
new piece. First wash the surface with boiling water, and with a 
coarse cloth remove dirt or grease ; then place it before the fire, or 
heat it with a caul; oil its surface with common linseed oil, place it 
again to the fire, and the heat will make the oil penetrate quite 
through the veneer and soften the glue underneath ; then whilst 
hot raise the edge gently with a chisel, and it will separate com- 
pletely from the ground ; be careful not to use too great force, or 
you will spoil your work; again, if it should get cold during the 
operation, apply more oil, and heat it again; repeat this process till 
you have entirely separated the veneer, then wash off the old glue, 
and proceed to lay it again as a new veneer. 

Banding is a term applied to a narrow strip of veneer used as a 
border, or part of a border, either to a large veneer or to solid 
wood ; in the latter case, a rebate is sunk for the banding. Band- 
ing is of three kinds : it is called straight-banding when the wood 
is cut lengthwise of the grain ; cross-banding when the wood is cut 
across the grain ; and feather-banding when cut at an angle be- 
tween the two. 

Between the banding and the central part, one or more lines are 
generally inserted, and sometimes a narrower band. 

The joints of banding should be as well matched as possible, 
both in respect to color and grain ; and, excepting the mitre- 
joints, it is an advantage to make the joints at the veins of the 
wood. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 1 5 

Inlaying, etc., etc. — Inlaying is an expensive method of 
. ornamenting furniture with fancy woods, metals, shells, etc., and if 
not well executed is unsightly and liable to frequent breakage. It 
is of great antiquity, and was brought to great perfection about the 
16th century; it was revived about the end of the 17th century in 
France, but met with little encouragement, though practiced by 
some eminent artists — amongst the most famous for the excellence 
and extent of his works was one Boalle, or Buhl, from whence Ave 
take the name of Buhl-work. It has been much in use in England, 
France and America during the last twenty years, to form orna- 
mental borders, chess tables, etc. 

In this art the part for the ornament and that for the ground are 
glued together, and the design being drawn upon one, both are at 
once cut through by a very fine species of bow-saw. Thus, there 
are four parts obtained, which, being put together in two, the one 
is the ornament designed in its proper ground; and the remainder 
of the ground, combined with the remainder of the ornament, gives 
another pattern called the reverse. 

The plates of brass or other metal should be of the usual thickness 
of a veneer, or as thin as can be conveniently worked, and made 
rough on both sides with a coarse file, or toothing plane. The 
veneers of wood or other matter to be combined with them, should 
also be toothed ; and, both the plates and veneers being warmed, 
first pass a coat of glue over one of the metal plates and cover it 
with a thin sheet of paper, then coat the paper with glue, and cover 
it with the veneer. Place them between two smooth and even 
boards, and let them be kept together either by a screw-press or by 
hand-screws, and remain till dry; they will then be found to ad- 
here together with sufficient firmness for cutting to the pattern. 

The pattern should be drawn on the veneer, or if, from the color, 
it should not be sufficiently distinct, a piece of paper may be pasted 
on the veneer, and after it is dry the design may be drawn upon it. 
The lines of the pattern should be cut with a bow-saw having a 
very thin and narrow blade ; such a saw may be made of part of a 
watch-spring, and the bow or the stretcher of the saw is required to 
be at such a distance from the blade as will admit the latter to turn 



1 6 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

and follow the lines of the pattern in any direction. The frame of 
the saw should be as light as possible. Where the pattern does 
not in any place approach the edge, a small hole must be made for 
inserting the saw ; and it is usual to saw upwards, that mode of saw- 
ing rendering it more easy to follow the lines correctly. When the 
whole of the pattern is cut out, the veneer or shell may be separ- 
ated from the metal by exposing them to steam, or to warm water. 

The next object is to join the parts so as to produce two com- 
plete ornaments ; the one composed of veneer inlaid with metal, 
the other of metal inlaid with veneer. For this purpose, on a plain 
surface, place a piece of paper of sufficient size, and the veneer 
upon it, then with strong glue insert the metal part in the veneer, 
and rub it well down with the veneering-hammer and glue ; next 
cover the whole with another piece of paper, and place it between 
two plain boards, which had been previously well warmed and 
rubbed with tallow, and screw or press them together. If this be 
properly done, the work will separate from the boards when dry ; 
and, the paper being removed, it may be laid in its place as a 
veneer; but a caul is usually employed in preference to the ham- 
mer. The reverse pattern, it is obvious, should be prepared for lay- 
ing in the same manner. 

The process is the same whether metal and wood or metal and 
tortoiseshell, or two woods of different colors be used. 

Inlaying with Shaded Wood.— Having shown the 

methods of cutting out and veneering, we need now only show the 
method used to produce that shady brown edge, on works inlaid 
with white holly, and which, when well executed, has a very pleas- 
ing and ornamental effect ; the method is as follows: — 

Into a shallow iron or tin pot, put a sufficient quantity of fine 
dry sand, to be level with the top edge of it ; place it on the fire 
till it is quite hot, then having your veneer cut out to the required 
pattern, dip the edges into the hot sand, and let them remain till 
the heat has made them quite brown ; but be careful not to burn 
them; it is best to bring them to a proper color by repeatedly re- 
newing the operation, than all at once, as you then do not injure 
the texture of the wood, and by immersing more or less of the edge 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 17 

you produce a shaded appearance to your satisfaction. I would 
here recommend the workman, previous to beginning the operation, 
to have his pattern before him shaded with umber, or au»y brown 
color, in those parts that the wood is to be stained, as he then will 
be enabled, as he proceeds, to copy the various shades of the pat- 
tern, for the wood when once shaded cannot be altered ; and as 
much of the beauty of this work depends on a proper judgment in 
placing your shadows, it is best always to have a guide to go by, 
that we may produce the best possible effect. Sometimes it is 
requisite to give a shadow in the centre, and not on the edge of 
your wood, and as this cannot be done by dipping it in the sand, 
you must do it by taking up a little of the hot sand and sprinkling 
it or heaping it up on those parts required to be darkened, letting 
it remain a short time, then shaking it off, and, if necessary, apply 
more where the color is not deep enough. 

To Imitate Inlaying of Silver Strings, etc.— This 

process is sometimes employed in the stocks, etc., of pistols, and if 
well executed has a very good effect ; carefully draw your pattern 
upon the work, and then engrave, or cut away the different lines 
with sharp gouges, chisels, etc., so as to appear clean and even, 
taking care to cut them deep enough, and rather under, like a 

i dovetail, to secure the composition afterwards to be put in the 
channels. The composition to resemble silver may be made as 
follows : take any quantity of the purest and best grain tin, melt it 

1 in a ladle or other convenient receptacle, add to it, while in fusion, 
the purest quicksilver, stirring it to make it incorporate; when you 
have added enough, it will remain in a stiff paste ; if too soft, add 
more tin, and if not sufficiently fluid add quicksilver ; grind this 
composition on a marble slab, or in a mortar, with a little size, and 
fill up the cuttings or grooves in your work, as you would with a 
piece of putty; let it remain some hours to dry, when you may 
polish it off with the palm of your hand, and it will appear as if your 
work was inlaid with silver. Instead of tin you may make a paste 
of silver leaf and quicksilver, and proceed as above directed ; you 
may also, for the sake of variety in your work, rub in wax of dif- 
ferent colors, and having levelled the surface and cleaned off yout 



l8 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

work, hold it at a moderate distance from the fire, which will give 
your strings a good gloss. 

Carving, Reeding, etc. — In carving, the quality of the 
wood is of the utmost importance. It should be free from cracks, 
knots, etc., and as even in its texture as possible, and, above all, 
well seasoned. 

The first thing to be done is to draw your pattern on the wood 
in its proper proportions; this is called boasting, and in it consists 
the chief art of carving, as he who is the best skilled in drawing, 
has the best idea of the quantity of projection that should be given 
to the respective parts, to accord with the given design. After 
making out the sketch, the carver has to shape the outline with 
saws or gouges, and then make out the prominences of each part 
when necessary or proper, by gluing on pieces of wood for that 
purpose. The roughly-formed pieces are fixed for carving, and, in 
some cases, this is done by gluing them to a board, with paper in- 
serted between, to enable the carver to take the carving off with 
more ease when it is finished. When the work is properly fixed, 
the carver proceeds to place his gouges; and, by a judicious 
choice of such kinds only as will suit the turn of the parts in boast- 
ing, endeavors not to have more than he can use without confusion. 

The principal lines of the whole are then formed, so as to be a 
sufficient guide to finishing, when it is completed with gouges and 
cutting tools of various kinds. 

The union of carved and turned work has almost always a beau- 
tiful effect ; but, in producing richness with the smallest degree of 
labor, the combination may be carried to a great extent. 

Reeding is a kind of ornament much in use in all parts of turned 
work. It is far better than fluting or cabling, for it has a bolder 
effect in small work than in fluting. When reeding is introduced on 
flat surfaces, there should always be an odd number, as 3, 5, 7, etc., 
the centre one being a trifle bolder in table legs, bed pillars, etc. 

Moulding Ornaments, Figures, etc., in Imita- 
tion Of Carving. — To avoid the expense of carving in wood, 
several attempts have been made to cast figures and ornaments tQ 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 1 9 

resemble wood. The most approved process we here present our 
readers. It was invented by M. Lenonnand, and rewarded at the 
Exposition of French Products, in 1823. 

Make a very clear glue with two parts of Flanders glue, and one 
part of isinglass, by dissolving the two kinds separately in a large 
quantity of water, and mix them together after they have been 
strained through a piece of fine linen, to separate the filth and he- 
trogeneous parts which could not be dissolved. The quantity of 
water cannot be fixed, because all kinds of glue are not homo- 
geneous, so that some require more and some less; but the proper 
degree of liquidity may be known by suffering the mixed glue to 
become perfectly cold ; it must then barely form a jelly. If it 
happens that it is still liquid when cold, a little of the water must 
be evaporated by exposing the vessel in which it is contained to 
heat. On the other hand, if it has too much consistence, a little 
warm water must be added. The glue, thus prepared, is to be 
heated till you can scarcely endure your finger in it; by this opera- 
tion a little water is evaporated, and the glue acquires more con- 
sistence. Then take raspings of wood or sawdust, sifted through a 
fine hair-sieve, and with the glue form it into a paste, which must 
be put into plaster or sulphur moulds, after they have been well 
rubbed over with linseed or nut-oil, in the same manner as when 
plaster is to be moulded. Care must be taken to press the parts 
into the mould with the hand, in order that the whole may acquire 
the perfect form ; then cover it with an oiled board, place over it 
a weight, and suffer it in that manner to dry. The drying may be 
hastened a little, and rendered more complete, by a stove. When 
the casting is dry remove the rough parts, and if any irregularities 
remain behind they must be smoothed, and then the ornament may 
be affixed with glue to the article for which it is intended. 

It may be varnished or polished in the usual manner. This 
operation is exceedingly easy ; nothing is necessary but moulds, and, 
1 with a little art, the ornament maybe infinitely varied. 

The species of ornament called Composition Ornament is used 
1 where the mass is not great, and the surface can be covered with 
E gilding or paint, and is not exposed to wear, Sunk roses, and 



20 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

other ornaments, which are protected by projections or mouldings, 
may be done in this manner, and it may be successfully applied to 
all objects beyond the reach of accident. 

The composition is made as follows: — Mix 14 pounds of glue, 
7 pounds of rosin, J^ pound of pitch, 1 1 /, pints of linseed oil, and 5 
pints of water (more or less, according to the quantity required). 
Boil the whole together, well stirring till dissolved ; adding as much 
whiting as will render it of a hard consistency; then press it into 
your mould, which has been previously oiled with sweet oil. 

No more should be mixed than can be used before it becomes 
sensibly hard, as it will require steaming before it can be again 
used. 

Composition ornaments should be well glued on, and, in some 
cases, they will require to be further secured by needle-points or 
brads. 

Composition ornaments are chiefly used for picture and glass 
frames; we have also seen them employed for ornaments on the 
top of oak book-cases, and, when grained by a good painter, they 
answer as well as when carved in wood. 



FINISHING. 

Wood Finishing is the process of applying to the surface 
after it has been prepared, by filling and smoothing, or otherwise, a 
thin coating of varnish or other substance, to render it durable, en- 
hance its beauty or change its appearance. There are numerous 
methods of finishing, and a variety of materials are used ; the va- 
rieties of varnish being the principal. The distinctive qualities of 
these varieties are treated under their proper headings. 

In their natural state all woods are more or less porous, consist- 
ing of bundles of hard fibres, with interstices filled with a softer sub- 
stance. These constitute the grain, and as the hard or soft parts 
predominate the wood is said to be hard, fine, or close-grained, or 
soft and open-grained. To fill these softer parts, or pores, and give 
to the whole an even, uniform surface, hard, and capable of a bril- 
liant polish, is the object of the finishers' art. This hard, firm sur- 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 21 

face was formerly gained by the successive application of several 
coats of varnish, at least three preliminary coats being required to 
fill the pores ; the inequalities were then reduced by fine sand or 
glass-paper, and several additional coats laid on, the last, after be- 
coming thoroughly hard, being polished if desired. In this opera- 
tion, however, a great quantity of varnish is absorbed by the open 
pores of the wood, and it is consequently so expensive that it is 
now seldom used. Recourse is therefore had to various plans to 
render the wood non-absorbent before applying varnishes, and cer- 
tain compounds called fillers are largely used for this purpose. 

Richness of effect may be gained in decorative woodwork by using 
woods of different tone, such as amaranth and amboya, or inlaying 
and veneering. The Hungarian ash and French walnut afford ex- 
cellent veneers, especially the burls or gnarls. A few useful notes 
on the subject are given by a recent American authority. In var- 
nishing, the varnishes used can be toned down to match the wood, 
or be made to darken it, by the addition of coloring matters. The 
patented, preparations, known as "wood fillers," are prepared in 
different colors for the purpose of preparing the surface of wood 
previous to the varnishing. They fill up the pores of the wood, 
rendering the surface hard and smooth. For polishing mahogany, 
walnut, etc., the following is recommended : Dissolve beeswax by 
heat in spirits of turpentine until the mixture becomes viscid; then 
apply, by a clean cloth, and rub thoroughly with a flannel or cloth. 
A common mode of polishing mahogany is by rubbing it first with 
linseed oil, and then by a cloth dipped in very fine brickdust; a 
good gloss may also be produced by rubbing with linseed oil, and 
then holding trimmings or shavings of the same material against 
the work in the lathe. Glass-paper, followed by rubbing, also gives 
a good lustre. 

Logwood, lime, brown soft-soap, dyed oil, sulphate of iron, nitrate 
of silver exposed to the sun's rays, carbonate of soda, bichromate 
and permanganate of potash, and other alkaline preparations, are 
used for darkening the wood ; the last three are specially recom- 
mended. The solution is applied by dissolving one ounce of the 
alkali in two gills of boiling water, diluted to the required tone. 



22 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

The surface is saturated with a sponge or flannel, and immediately 
dried with soft rags. The carbonate is used for dark woods. Oil 
tinged with rose madder may be applied to hard woods like birch, 
and a red oil is prepared from soaked alkanet root in linseed-oil. 
The grain of yellow pine can be brought out by two or three coats 
of japan, much diluted with turpentine, and afterwards oiled and 
rubbed. To give mahogany the appearance of age, lime water 
used before oiling is a good plan. In staining wood, the best and 
most transparent effect is obtained by repeated light coats of the 
same. For oak stain a strong solution of oxalic acid is employed; 
for mahogany, dilute nitrous acid. A primary coat or a coat of 
wood-fillers is advantageous. For mahogany stains, the following 
are given : 2 oz. of dragon's blood dissolved in one quart of recti- 
fied spirits of wine, well shaken, or raw sienna in beer, with burnt 
sienna to give the required tone; for darker stains, boil half a pound 
of madder and 2 oz. of logwood chips in one gallon of water, and 
brush the decoction while hot over the wood ; when dry, paint 
with a solution of 2 oz. of potash in one quart of water. A solu- 
tion of permanganate of potash forms a rapid and excellent brown 
stain. 

The Processes.— Finishing, although comprehending many 
minute sub-divisions, may be divided into four principal processes, 
i. e., " Filling," " Varnishing," " Rubbing," and " Flowing," " Pol- 
ishing," etc. Each of them are treated at length in their proper 
order, and for full information regarding the successive operations, 
the learner must refer to these heads; here we shall give a gen- 
eral view of the entire operation without details. The process de- 
scribed is for fine work. First make the article to be finished quite 
clean and free from dust ; then apply the proper filler with a brush ; 
rub it well into the grain with excelsior or tow, rubbing across the 
grain when practicable, then clean all the surplus filler from the sur- 
face with rags; after filling, allow the article to stand for several 
hours, during which time the filler should become quite hard and 
dry. Before proceeding to apply the varnish, if necessary, make 
the surface of the filler quite smooth with sand-paper; then apply I 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 23 

a coat of varnish, allowing it to get quite hard; after the last coat 
of varnish, with fine sand-paper, sand-paper the surface sufficiently 
to make it entirely smooth and remove any lumps or irregularities. 
The number of coats required depends greatly upon the quality of 
filler used, regarding which some remarks will be found under the 
head of Fillers. It is said that with some fillers one coat of var- 
nish is sufficient, but this can scarcely be the case with fine work, 
as it is not possible for one coat of varnish to give sufficient body 
to rub a four, or possibly three coats are more desirable. When 
the last coat of varnish lias been applied, the article is ready for 
" rubbing " with pumice stone, moistened with linseed oil and ap- 
plied with a bit of hair-cloth or coarse rag. This is for the pur- 
pose of making the varnish perfectly smooth and preparing it for 
the polishing. After rubbing, if a dead finish is desired, the work 
is complete, but the body of the work is generally cleaned up with 
a little oil well rubbed in, which gives it a lustre, afterward rubbed 
with a cloth dampened with alcohol, which removes the surplus oil 
from the surface. The veneered panels are either "flowed" or 
" polished," which processes are described under these heads. 



FILLING. 

Fillers. — These compounds play a very important part in the 
art of finishing, not only in the great economy of material and time 
required, but' in producing a handsomer and more durable finish 
than possible, except at great cost, without them. Oil is sometimes 
used as a filler, but its use is not recommended ; applied directly to 
the wood its effect is to swell the fibres, or " raise the grain, " 
which remains in that condition until the oil becomes entirely dry, 
or disappears. During all this time the fibres are gradually shrink- 
ing, and consequently moving or checking the varnish. The quali- 
ties essential to a good filler are : that it shall readily enter the 
porous portion of the wood, and shall very soon harden and render 
the wood impervious to the varnish, which should lie smoothly 
upon the surface, giving brilliancy and effect to the natural beauty 
of the wood; that it shall not raise the grain of the wood; that it 



24 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

shall not change the color of the wood. These conditions are 
satisfactorily filled by very few of the home-made fillers ordinarily 
used in shops, and while we give a number of receipts, our readers 
are advised that they will obtain better satisfaction, at less cost, by 
purchasing some of the patent fillers now coming into general use, 
of which we can recommend the very excellent fillers of the Bridge- 
port Wood Finishing Co., New York, and J. W. Kenna & Co., 
Chicago. In these fillers very little oil is used and a large amount 
of dryers, so that the wood becomes perfectly dry and hard in a 
few hours, preventing any swelling or shrinking of the fibres of the 
wood after the varnish is applied. The following fillers should be 
allowed to dry until quite hard. About eight hours are usually 
sufficient. 

Walnut Filler. — For Medium and Cheap Work. — 10 lbs. 
bolted English whiting, 3 lbs. dry burnt umber, 4 lbs. Vandyke 
brown, 3 lbs. calcined plaster, fa lb. Venetian red, 1 gal. boiled 
linseed oil, fa gal. spirits turpentine, 1 quart black japan. Mix 
well and apply with brush; rub well with excelsior or tow. clean oft 
with rags. For Imitation Wax-Finish. — 5 lbs. bolted whiting, 
1 lb. calcined plaster, 6 ounces calcined magnesia, 1 ounce dry 
burnt umber, 1 ounce French yellow, 1 quart raw linseed oil, 
1 quart benzine spirits, fa pint very thin white shellac. Mix well 
and apply with a brush. Rub well in and clean off with rags. 
Before using the above filling give the work one coat of white shel- 
lac. When dry, sand-paper clown and apply the filler. For 
First-Class Work. — 3 lbs. burnt umber ground in oil, r lb. burnt 
sienna ground in oil, 1 quart spirits turpentine, 1 pint brown japan. 
Mix well and apply with a brush; sand-paper well; clean off with 
tow and rags. This gives a beautiful chocolate color to the wood. 

Filler for Light Woods.— 5 lbs. bolted English whiting, 
3 lbs. calcined plaster, fa gallon raw linseed oil, i quart spirits tur- 
pentine, 1 quart brown Japan, and sufficient French yellow to tinge 
the white. Mix well and apply with a brush, rub in with excelsior 
or tow, and clean off with rags. Another. — 10 lbs, bolted English 
whiting, 5 lbs. calcined plaster, i lb. corn starch, 3 ounces calcined 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 25 

magnesia, i gallon raw linseed oil, y^ gallon spirits turpentine, 1 
quart brown japan, 2 ounces French yellow. Mix well and apply 
with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. 

Filler for Cherry. — 5 lbs. bolted English whiting, 2 lbs. 
calcined plaster, ij4 ounces dry burnt sienna, i ounce Venetian 
red, 1 quart boiled linseed oil, i pint spirits turpentine, i pint brown 
japan. Mix well, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with 
rags. 

Filler for Oak. — 5 lbs. bolted English whiting, 2 lbs. cal- 
cined plaster, 1 ounce dry burnt sienna, j4 ounee dry French 
yellow, 1 quart raw linseed oil, 1 pint benzine spirits, yi pint white 
shellac. Mix well, apply with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, 
and clean off with rags. 

Filler for Rosewood. — 6 lbs. bolted English whiting, 2 
lbs. calcined plaster, i lb. rose pink, 2 ounces Venetian red, y? lb. 
Vandyke brown, y? lb. brandon red, 1 gallon boiled linseed oil, y^. 
gallon spirits turpentine, 1 quart black japan. Mix well, apply 
with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. 

Sizing. — Size of different kinds is sometimes applied to the sur- 
face of wood to prevent absorption of the varnish. The kind of 
material used for the size is not important, the object being only to 
prevent absorption by a very thin coat of some substance not 
soluble in the varnish. For dark-colored woods, thin size, made by 
reducing ordinary glue with water, is generally used ; but for lighter- 
colored surfaces, a white size is used, which is prepared by boiling 
white kid or other leather, or parchment cuttings, in water for a 
few hours, or until it forms a thin jelly-like substance, which is re- 

' duced with water to a thin consistency, and used in a tepid state. 

; Sometimes solutions of isinglass or tragacanth are employed in like 
manner. 

Unlike the best fillers, sizes of any kind do not improve the finish, 
1 and are sometimes a positive detriment to it. They are used 
solely as an economy to reduce the quantity of the varnish needed, 
and their use is not recommended for the best work. 



26 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

APPLICATION OF VARNISHES. 

Preliminary to applying the varnish the pores of the wood should 
be filled, according to instructions given in the preceding receipts. 
Sufficient time should be allowed for the filler to become perfectly 
hard, and if any lumps or inequalities remain, the surface should be 
made perfectly smooth by the use of glass paper. All dust, specks, 
etc., should be carefully removed by the brush made for that pur- 
pose, and the work is then ready for the varnish. 

Varnishes of all kinds should be uniformly applied, in very thin 
coats, sparingly upon the edges and . angles, where the varnish is 
liable to accumulate. In first placing the brush on the surface, it 
should be applied, not close to the edge, which would be liable to 
give too thick a coat at that part, but at a little distance from the 
edge, and the strokes of the brush should be directed towards the 
ends alternately, with steady rapid strokes, and only very moderate 
pressure. If the surface is small, the whole may be passed over in 
one operation, and then the brush may be returned to the edge at 
which work was begun, and it may be passed over the surface a 
second or a third time, to distribute the varnish uniformly, and 
work out the air bubbles. Sometimes, in small surfaces, the second 
series of strokes is made at right angles to the first, in order to dis- 
tribute the varnish more equally, and the third is laid on in the 
same direction as the first; but unless this is done expeditiously 
and equally, it leaves cross-lines, which injure the appearance of 
the work. 

Large surfaces are more difficult, as the varnish thickens too 
rapidly to allow of the entire surface being covered at one opera- 
tion. They must therefore either be worked gradually from the 
one edge to the other, as in laying a tint of water-color, or the var- 
nish must be applied upon separate portions successively; but it is 
lather difficult to join the portions without leaving irregular marks. 
It may, however, be successfully accomplished by thinning off the 
edge with light strokes of the brush made in the same direction as 
those on the finished portion; but some care is required to avoid 
disturbing the former coat while it is still soft and easily acted upon 
by the fresh varnish. In the same manner, in laying on a second or 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 27 

any subsequent coat of varnish, care must be taken not to continue 
the application of the brush sufficiently long to disturb the previous 
coat, which is speedily softened by the fresh varnish ; and if the 
application of the brush were continued too long, the preceding- 
coat would be disturbed, giving to the work an irregular or chilled 
appearance. A sufficient interval of time should be allowed be- 
tween each coat for the perfect evaporation of the solvent, whether 
alcohol, turpentine or oil. The time required for this depends 
partly upon the kind of varnish employed, and partly on the state 
of the atmosphere. Under ordinary circumstances, spirit varnishes 
generally require from two to three hours between every coat ; tur- 
pentine varnishes mostly require six or eight hours ; anil oil var- 
nishes still longer — sometimes as much as twenty-four hours. But 
whatever time may be required, the second layer should never be 
added until the first is permanently hard; as when one layer is de- 
fended from the air by a seeond, its drying is almost stopped, and 
it remains soft and adhesive. 

In applying spirit varnish, some little tact and expedition are 
necessary, in order to spread the varnish uniformly over the sur- 
face before it becomes too much thickened by evaporation, or it 
will exhibit a very irregular surface when finished. If the surface 
does not exceed a few inches square, no material difficulty is ex- 
perienced, as the whole may be brushed over two or three times 
before the varnish becomes too thick; but surfaces containing two 
or three square feet present much greater difficulty, as it is neces- 
sary that the varnish should be sufficiently worked with the brush 
to exclude all minute air-bubbles, which would spoil the appear- 
ance of the work, and can seldom be entirely removed until just 
before the varnish is becoming too thick to flow or spread uniformly 
after the brush has passed over it. 

Turpentine and oil varnishes are applied in the same general 
manner as spirit varnishes; but as they dry more slowly, more time 
may be occupied in laying on the varnish, and therefore large sur- 
faces maybe more easily and uniformly covered; but the same 
precautions with respect to the dryness and warmth of the atmosphere 
are likewise desirable when it is wished to produce a brilliant surface. 



28 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

Every precaution should also be taken to prevent any dust, or 
loose hairs from the brush, becoming accidentally attached to the 
varnish. Should this occur they will require to be carefully picked 
out with the point of a penknife and the surface of the varnish 
leveled with fine glass-paper, prior to the application of the next 
coat. 

In using spirit varnishes, it is at all times of the first importance 
that particular attention should be given to^ doing the varnishing 
in a dry atmosphere ; as all solutions of resins in alcohol are pre- 
cipitated by the addition of water, not only as visible moisture, but 
even as vapor, which is at all times deposited by the atmosphere 
at a reduced temperature, in the form of invisible dew, and in this 
state it precipitates the resin in the thin coat of varnish, and gives 
the surface a milky, clouded or opaque appearance when the var- 
nish is said to be chilled. But this effect is frequently produced 
even on a warm and apparently fine summer day, when the atmo- 
sphere happens' to be more than usually charged with moisture. 
This is a frequent stumbling block in varnishing, and is only to be 
obviated by carrying on the process in a room sufficiently warmed 
to keep the moisture suspended in the air until the solvent has 
completely evaporated. 

Not only should the room be sufficiently heated, but all currents 
of cold air must be avoided, as cold drafts if suffered to pass over 
the recently varnished surface, are quite sufficient to dull the var- 
nish wherever they extend. When the varnish has been chilled, 
the brilliancy and clearness may frequently be restored by giving 
the chilled surface another thin coat of varnish, taking care to. 
avoid the causes of the former failure, and immediately holding the 
varnished surface at a moderate distance from a fire, so as to warm 
it sufficiently to partially re-dissolve the chilled coat; but care is 
necessary to avoid heating the varnish so much as to raise blisters, 
in which case no remedy would remain but to scrape off the entire 
coat. 

The temperature generally preferred for the varnish room is 
about 72 deg. F., but a few degrees more or less are not important. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 29 

Brushes for Varnishing. — For spirit varnishes, camel's- 
hair pencils and brushes are used, the sizes of which vary from one- 
quarter to three-quarters of an inch diameter, according to the size 
of the work. When the surfaces are very large, flat camel-hair 
brushes are used ; but from their comparative thinness they scarcely 
contain a sufficient quantity of varnish to preserve the brush uni- 
formly charged in passing over a large surface. Turpentine and 
oil varnishes require less delicacy; and flat brushes, made of fine 
soft bristles, are generally used, or sometimes ordinary painting 
brushes are employed, but they are rather harsh, and, owing to 
the adhesion of the varnish, the hairs are apt to be loosened, and 
come out. Brushes should always be kept perfectly soft and clean, 
and therefore should never be laid aside when through work, with- 
out cleaning. For this purpose turpentine is best ; the brushes can 
either be washed out quite clean in it, dried on a cloth, and laid 
aside, or the bristles can be partially immersed in turpentine and 
allowed to remain in it until wanted for use. Warm water and 
soap will also serve to clean the brushes. If, however, the brushes 
are laid aside without being thoroughly cleaned, they will certainly 
be ruined by the hardening of the varnish. 

Varnish Pan. — This can be procured at the color shops. 
It is constructed of tin, with a false bottom; the interval between 
the two bottoms is filled with sand, which being heated over the 
fire keeps the varnish fluid, and it flows more readily from the 
brush. There is a tin handle to it, and the false bottom slopes 
from one end to the other, which gives sufficient depth when the 
varnish is low. It should also have a wire fixed across the top to 
wipe the brush against. An ordinary preserve jar is frequently 
used for containing the varnish, and is sufficiently suitable; but it 
also should have a wire or string stretched across the top, for re- 
ducing the quantity 'of varnish taken up by the brush. The quan- 
tity of varnish poured into the jar should be sufficient to nearly 
cover the hairs of the brush in order to keep it soft. Too small a 
quantity of varnish is liable to thicken rapidly by evaporation, 
which should at all times be prevented as far as possible, by keep- 
_ ing the vessel closely covered when not in actual use. 



30 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 



... 



RUBBING. 

This part of the finishing process is that which gives to the var- 
nish when laid upon the wood a degree of smoothness not other- 
wise attainable ; for by the use of the brush alone, minute furrows 
and ridges are left upon the plastic surface of the varnish ; and 
although good varnish possesses in itself a high gloss, the gloss is 
not nearly so agreeable to the eye as the brilliant polish, of which 
rubbing is the preliminary. The reduction of these ridges and 
furrows is accomplished by means of finely-powdered pumice-stone 
moistened with raw linseed oil, applied with a piece of hair-cloth 
or other coarse and fibrous material. For rubbing large flat sur- 
faces the hair-cloth is sometimes folded over a block of convenient 
size, but this is not practicable for articles of small size or irregular 
shape. In rubbing, considerable force must be used, but the stroke 
should be steady and as long as possible, and great care should be 
taken to rub the surface uniformly, as in case it is rubbed unevenly 
the varnish is liable to be worn away quite to the wood in some 
places, and the perfect smoothness that is the beauty of a good finish 
will thus be impossible. The edges especially are liable to be rubbed 
bare, and should be carefully treated. The crevices and hollows 
of carvings are rubbed by means of hard pointed sticks of various 
convenient sizes. The rubbing should be continued until the entire 
surface appears perfectly smooth and free from marks of any kind. 
The surplus pumice-stone and oil should all be carefully removed 
from the surface by means of rags, and the work may then be 
cleaned up with a little sweet oil well rubbed in, and retouched 
with a cloth slightly dampened in alcohol, which serves to remove 
any remaining oil from the surface. If the article has veneered 
panels, they are now ready for the final processes of " polishing " 
or " flowing." 



FLOWING AND POLISHING. 

Plowing. — Flowing is the process of giving the work, after 
it has been properly prepared, a coat of varnish made expressly for 
that purpose, called flowing varnish, Veneered panels are usually 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 



3 1 



finished tin's way. Some finishers, when the body-work is to be 
dead-finish with flowed panels, coat the panels with the same var- 
nish — shellac or other— used for the body, and rub them with 
pumice-stone and oil ; in fact, up to the point of flowing make no 
difference whatever in the treatment of the body-work and the 
panels. Such treatment is not recommended; whatever varnish is 
used for the body-work, the panels should be coated with two or 
three coats of the best rubbing varnish ; oil should not be used for 
rubbing, as, if the surface is at all greasy the subsequent coat of 
flowing varnish cannot be evenly laid, therefore water should be 
used with the pumice-stone for rubbing, in place of oil. After the 
rubbing is completed, wash off with a sponge and dry with a 
chamois skin. Let it stand for a day, and after freeing the work 
of all pumice-stone and dust, take it to the flowing-room, which 
should be clean, dry, and free from dust and all drafts of air, apply 
the varnish with a flat brush of suitable width made of badger or 
fitch hair ; lay the varnish on smoothly and evenly, leaving no 
marks of the brush. The quicker the varnish is put on, and the 
less it is worked, the better it will look. Let it stand in the room 
until it is hard enough to handle. Upholstered work should not 
be flowed until it comes from the hands of the upholsterer and is 
ready for the warerooms. 

Varnish. Polishing. — This process is used when it is de- 
sired to give to the work a blight lustre, different from the natural 
gloss, and resulting from a perfectly smooth surface produced by 
rubbing. The previously applied coats of rubbing varnish having 
been rubbed down with pumice-stone and water, one or more coats 
of polishing varnish is applied, rubbed down as before, and 
brought to a bright mirror-like surface with rotten-stone and water. 
Clean up with a little sweet oil, and afterward with a cloth damp- 
ened in alcohol. 



VARIETIES OP FINISH. 

The processes of finishing having been described, it now re- 
mains to explain varieties of finishing in use ; these are largely 



32 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

derived from the peculiar qualities of the different varnishes used, 
for full explanation of which see article on Varnishes. Polish- 
ing-varnishes, which are very hard and durable, are so called be- 
cause their surface can be brought to a high lustre by rubbing with 
the proper materials. Flowing or finishing-varnishes contain more 
oil than polishing-vamishes, dry more slowly, and are softer, but 
their peculiar qualities are brilliancy and durability, fitting them 
for work requiring a brilliant gloss, such as veneered panels. Rub- 
bing-varnishes are those that dry sufficiently hard to admit of being 
rubbed to a smooth surface. Turpentine varnishes, being the 
cheapest variety, are employed for cheap work, such as common 
chairs, bedsteads, etc. In general terms it may be said that the 
particular filler, stain or other preliminary application used exer- 
cises an important influence over the appearance of the finish, and 
that a great variety of combinations are possible. For different 
woods different fillers are used, the basis in most cases being the 
same, the difference being principally in the coloring material, and 
this is capable of great variation, to suit individual tastes. The 
same is true of stains, and under the head of Stains and Fillers 
will be found all needed information concerning the applications 
proper for different woods, with methods for using them. The 
varnish or other covering material used subsequently, will here be 
treated of separately. 

Dead-Finish.. — This term is applied to the finish produced 
by the reduction of any of the rubbing-varnishes with powdered 
pumice-stone and raw linseed oil (see Rubbing), the surface thus 
produced being left in the semi-lustrous state, by omitting the 
polishing process. It is now more used than any other for body 
work, shellac varnish being generally employed because of its 
adaptation to the requirements of fine cabinet work, and its proper- 
ties of quick and hard drying. Copal, anime and amber varnishes 
are also used, but are slower drying. Veneered panels are usually 
"flowed" or "polished" when the body work is dead-finished. 
The number of coats required depends somewhat upon the quality 
of the filler, but usually three coats, and sometimes less, are amply 
sufficient. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 33 

Varnish Finish. — For cheap work. — One coat of filler or 
stain, followed by one coat of cheap turpentine varnish, without 
rubbing. In this class of work, the brilliancy of the gloss and 
covering qualities of the varnish are principally considered. The 
cheaper turpentine varnishes have a brilliant gloss, and dry very 
hard, but the gloss is not permanent, and after drying, the gum is 
very brittle and easily cracked and broken. The gum used is 
principally common resin. 

Wax Finish. — Mix together with heat, white wax and 
spirits of turpentine to the consistency of thick paste ; when cold, 
apply it to the work with a. rag; rub on heavily so as to fill the 
pores of the wood ; remove all wax from the surface with a wooden 
scraper made in the shape of a carpenter's chisel; smooth off with 
a bunch of soft rags by rubbing hard and quick for a few minutes; 
finish with a little French polish applied with a cotton pad. (See 
French Polish). For table tops and all- large flat surfaces, allow 
the wax to remain on and finish with a warm iron by passing it 
lightly and quickly over the work until the wax is made smooth 
and the surface is sufficiently polished. This is not considered a 
desirable finish, as it is not durable, and water spots it very easily. 

Imitation Wax Finish.— Use the light-colored filler, 
named under the head of Fillers. Apply three coats of white 
shellac ; rub down with pumice-stone and oil ; clean up with 
brown japan and spirits of turpentine mixed. Varnish-polish the 
panels. 

Ebony Finish. — This finish is usually applied to cherry, or 
other light-colored woods having little grain. The ebony appear- 
ance is produced by the use of a stain, various receipts for which 
will be found under the head of Stains. White shellac is the 
varnish usually employed, but some prefer the best rubbing-var- 
nishes. Whatever varnish is selected, it should be as near as pos- 
sible transparent, as otherwise the color of the work will appear to 
be greenish or brown. Not more than three coats should be ap- 
plied, as successive coats of the most transparent varnish will cause 
an opaque or clouded appearance. Experience and care are re- 



34 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

quired to successfully rub an ebonized article, as the varnish must 
be rubbed almost to the wood, and if rubbed too deep a portion of 
the stain is removed, leaving a spot. Especial care should be 
used in rubbing the angles. Another. — Instead of staining the 
wood and applying successive coats of transparent rubbing-varnish, 
a black varnish (or more properly speaking, a lacquer) is often laid 
upon the surface of the wood. This process possesses the advan- 
tage of being very speedy, not occupying more time than ordinary 
spirit-varnishing, but on the other hand, the rapid hardening of the 

■ gum prevents the varnish from entering into and becoming fixed 
in the pores, so that it lies in a thin, hard, but very brittle coating 
upon the surface, and is very readily broken and scaled off, leaving 
spots of the original color of the wood, that cannot be properly re- 
paired. Shellac varnish is generally used for this finish, and is pre- 
pared by adding to it drop-black or perfectly pure lamp-black, 
containing no grease or other foreign substance, sufficient to make 

'it perfectly black. Apply one or more coats of this to the work, 
and finish by adding the necessary number of coats of brown 
shellac, and rubbing in the usual way. This finish is employed 

•when it is desired to engrave or carve a design through ebonized 

■work, thus making the natural color of the wood appear in contrast 
to the black. 

French Polishing.— This is a method of varnishing by 
rubbing the varnish upon the surface of the wood instead of apply- 
ing it with brushes. ' When varnish is applied simply with a brush, 
a comparatively uneven surface results, rendering necessary the 
subsequent processes of rubbing and polishing, but by the method 
of French polishing, a smooth and continuous surface, hard and not 
easily scratched, is secured, 

All the polishes are applied very much in the same way, and a 
•general description will therefore be sufficient. To obtain a good 
polish with lac varnish on wood, the quantity applied must be very 
small, and must be rubbed continuously until dry. If the work be 
porous or cross grained, it will be necessary to give it a coat of 
thin, clear size previous to commencing with the polish ; when dry, 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 35 

the surface must be smoothed with fine glass or sand-paper. The 
size fills up the pores and saves the polish, and also saves consider- 
able time in the operation. 

Make a wad of cotton -batting, covered with several folds of very 
fine, soft linen cloth ; put the wad or cushion to the mouth of the 
bottle containing the preparation (or polish) and shake it sufficiently 
to damp the cloth; then proceed to lightly rub the work with cir- 
cular motion ; as the rubber becomes drier, the pressure may be in- 
creased, but care should be taken not to press too heavily when 
the rubber contains much polish, as streakiness will result. The 
circular motion should be continued until the rubber becomes quite 
dry, when more polish may be taken upon it and the rubbing re- 
newed. It should be borne in mind that the rubber should never 
be raised directly from the work, but should be raised with a sweep- 
ing motion; also that it should never for a moment remain quiet 
upon the surface ; and that its motion should be as even as pos- 
sible; neglect of these precautions will produce a rough surface 
wherever the rubber remains quiet or is improperly removed. The 
circular rubbing must be continued until the surface appears per- 
fectly smooth and the pores are no longer visible. Be very par- 
ticular to keep the cloth covering of the wad clean and soft; it is 
desirable to use a clean portion each time it is dipped in the polish. 
It is quite likely that in about twelve hours after the above opera- 
tion the surface of the work will be lustreless, and the grain plainly 
visible, in that case proceed over the work again until the grain is 
thoroughly filled. French polishing is a process requiring particu- 
lar care and skill, and considerable experience is necessary to pro- 
duce good results. 

The Ingredients. — Shellac, dissolved in alcohol, is the 
basis of all French polishes, and some finishers use thin shellac 
varnish without other admixture, slightly moistening the rubber 
with linseed oil to prevent stickiness and make it work smoothly. 
There is a great variety of admixtures and diversity in the propor 
lion of ingredients, but the differences are not material. We sub- 
join a number of receipts. 



36 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

The Genuine French-Polish. — To one pint of spirits 

of wine add a quarter of an ounce of gum-copal, a quarter of an 
ounce of gum-Arabic, and one ounce of shellac. 

Let the gums be well bruised, and sifted through a piece of 
muslin. Put the spirits and the gums together in a vessel that can 
be closely corked ; place them near a warm stove, and frequently 
shake them. In two or three days they will be dissolved. Strain 
the mixture through a piece of muslin, and keep it tight corked 
for use. 

French Polish. — Take one ounce each of mastic, sandarac, 
seedlac, shellac, gumlac, and gum-Arabic ; reduce them to powder ; 
and add a quarter of an ounce of virgin wax ; put the whole into a 
bottle, with one quart of rectified spirits of wine ; let it stand twelve 
hours, and it will be fit for use. 

Another. — Put into a glass bottle one ounce of gumlac, two 
drachms of mastic in drops, four drachms of sandarac, three ounces 
of shellac, and half an ounce of gum dragon ; reduce the whole to 
powder; add it to a piece of camphor the size of a nut, and pour 
on it eight ounces of rectified spirits of wine. Stop the bottle 
close, but take care, when the gums are dissolving, that it is not 
more than half full. Place near a warm stove until dissolved. 

Other French-Polish Receipts. — -1 pint naptha, 3^ ounces orange 
shellac, ^2 ounce elima. Darken with red saunders wood. 

To one pint of spirits of wine, add half an ounce of gum shellac, 
half an ounce of seed lac, and a quarter of an ounce of gum sand- 
arac ; submit the whole to a gentle heat, frequently shaking it, till 
the various gums are dissolved, when it is fit for use. 

Shellac, 6 ounces ; naptha, 1 quart ; sandarac, 1 ounce ; ben- 
zoin, i/^ ounce. 

Three ounces shellac, y?, ounce of gum mastic pulverized, and 
one pint of methylated spirits of wine added. Let it stand till dis- 
solved. 

Twelve ounces shellac, 2 ounces gum elima, 3 ounces gum copal, 
1 gallon of spirits of wine; dissolve. 

The following must be well mixed and dissolved : — Pale shellac, 
2j/ pounds; 3 ounces mastic, 3 ounces sandarac, 1 gallon spirits 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 37 

of wine. After the above is dissolved, add i pint copal varnish, 
1% ounces shellac, j4 ounce gum juniper, j4 ounce benzoin, )4 
pint of methylated alcohol. 

An Improved Polish. — To a pint of spirits of wine add, 
in fine powder, one ounce seedlac, two drachms of gum guaiacum, 
two drachms of dragon's-blood, and two drachms of gum mastic; 
expose them, in a vessel stopped close, to a moderate heat for 
three hours, until you find the gums dissolved ; strain the whole 
into a botde for use, with a quarter of a gill of the best linseed oil, 
to be shaken up well with it. 

This polish is more particularly intended for dark-colored 
woods — for it is apt to give a tinge to light ones, as satin-wood or 
air-wood, etc. — owing to the admixture of the dragon's-blood, 
which gives it a red appearance. 

Water-proof Polish. — Take a pint of spirits of wine, two 
ounces of gum benzoin, a quarter of an ounce of gum sandarac, 
and a quarter of an ounce of gum anime; these must be put into 
a stopped bottle, and placed either in a sand-bath or in hot water 
till dissolved; then strain the mixture, and, after adding about a 
quarter of a gill of the best clear poppy oil, shake it well up, and 
put it by for use. 

Prepared Spirits. — This preparation is useful for finishing 
after any of the foregoing receipts, as it adds to the lustre and 
durability, as well as removes every defect, of the other polishes; 
and it gives the surface a most brilliant appearance. 

Half a pint of the very best rectified spirits of wine, two drachms 

of shellac, and two drachms of gum benzoin. Put these ingredi- 

[i ents into a bottle, and keep it in a warm place till the gum is all 

. dissolved, shaking it frequently; when cold, add two teaspoonfuls 

of the best clear white poppy oil ; shake them well together, and it 

is fit for use. 

This preparation is used in the same manner as the foregoing 
polishes; but, in order to remove all dull places, you may increase 
the pressure in rubbing. 



38 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

Polish for Turners' Work. — Dissolve 1 ounce of 
sandarach in J^ pint of spirits of wine; shave 1 ounce of beeswax, 
and dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of spirits of turpentine to 
make it into a paste, add the former mixture to it by degrees; 
then, with a woollen cloth, apply it to the work while it is in motion 
in the lathe, and polish it with a soft linen rag; it will appear as if 
highly varnished. 



STAINING. 

Staining is the process of imparting to the surface of wood a 
color different from its natural one. It consists of two varieties, 
surface-staining and body-staining. In the former, as the name 
implies, the staining is effected by various compounds in the nature 
of pigments, laid upon the surface like paint, and forming a thin 
opaque coating, which does not, to any considerable degree, affect 
the fibre of the wood. In the latter the changes are chemical, the 
stain being usually applied as a thin wash, which, entering the 
pores of the wood, colors it to some depth below the surface. 
Staining requires no -preliminary preparation, the stain being ap- 
plied directly to the wood. As most stains raise the grain of the 
wood to a considerable extent, it is necessary before applying the 
varnish, to sand-paper the wood enough to render the grain quite 
smooth; this sometimes renders a second coat necessary, after 
which the sand-paper must be again applied. 

A Good Black Stain. — 1. Gall-nuts coarsely broken, 2 
ounces; rain water, 1 quart ; boil until reduced one-half. 2. White 
vinegar, 1 pint; iron filings, 2 ounces ; antimony (powdered) 2 
ounces; vitriol, 1 ounce; logwood, a small handful. Infuse in 
bottle eight days, tying the cork down. To stain a piece of wood, 
give the wood a coating of No. 1, which acts as a mordant; when 
nearly dry put on No. 2 ; let it dry quite, and then brush it ov 
again with No. 2. 

Another. — Boil y^ lb. of chip logwood in 2 quarts of water 
add 1 oz. of pearl-ash, and apply it hot to the work with 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 39' 

brush ; then take ^ lb. of logwood, boil it as before in 2 quarts of 
water, and add y 2 oz. of verdigris and )A oz. of copperas ; strain 
it off, put in y% lb. of rusty steel filings, and with this go over the 
work a second time. 

Another. — Boil the extract of logwood in water, and to it add 
slowly a little of the yellow prussiate of potash. Brush on hot. 

Another. — Boil 1 lb. logwood in 4 quarts of water; add a double 
handful of walnut-peel or shells, boil it up again, take out the 
chips, add a pint of the best vinegar and it will be fit for use ; ap- 
ply hot. This will be improved by applying over the first stain a 
solution of one ounce of green copperas in a quart of water. 

Other Black Stains. — 1. Drop a little sulphuric acid into a small 
quantity of water; brush over the wood and hold it to the fire; 
it will be a fine black and receive a good polish. 2. For a beau- 
tiful black, on wood, nothing can exceed black japan. Apply 
two coats; after which, varnish and polish it. 3. To .1 gallon vine- 
gar, add a quarter of a pound of iron rust; let it stand for a week; 
then add a - pound of dry lamp-black, and three-quarters of a pound 
copperas ; stir it up for a couple of days. Lay on five or six coats 
with a sponge, allowing it to dry between each; polish. with linseed 
oil and a soft woollen rag, and it will look like ebony. 4. Vinegar, j4 
gal.; dry lamp-black, J^ lb.; iron rust sifted, 3 lbs.; mix and let stand 
for a week. Lay three coats of this on hot, and then rub with lin- 
seed oil, and you will have a fine deep black. 5. Add to the above 
stain nut-galls, 1 oz.; logwood chips, j4 lb.; copperas, j£- lb.; lay 
011 three coats; oil well, and you will have a black stain that will 
stand any kind of weather, and is well adapted for ships' combings, 
etc. 6. Logwood chips, y!, lb.; Brazil-wood, 1^ lb.; boil for i.%£ 
hours in 1 gallon water. Brush the wood with this decoction while 
hot; make a decoction of nut-galls, by gentle simmering for three 
or four days, a quarter of a pound of the galls in 3 qts. water; give 
the wood three coats, and, while wet, lay on a solution of sulphate 
of iron (2 ozs. to a quart), and, when dry, oil or varnish. 7. Give 
three coats with a solution of copper filings in aquafortis, and re- 
peatedly brush over with the logwood decoction until the. greenness 



40 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

of the copper is destroyed. 8. Boil y 2 lb. logwood chips in 2 
quarts water; add an ounce of pearlash, and apply hot with a 
brush. Then take 2 quarts of the logwood decoction, and y 2 oz. 
of verdigris, and the same of copperas ; strain, and throw in ]A lb. 
of iron rust. Brush the work well with this, and oil. 

Brown Stain. — Boil 1 lb. of the brown pigment called Terre 
de Cassel with 4 quarts of water, until it is reduced one-third. 
Mix two ounces (Troy) of white potash with sufficient water to dis- 
solve it. and mix with the Terre de Cassel. This stain must be ap- 
plied with a brush, two or even three times, according to the depth 
of the shade required. 

Walnut Stain. — Mix together, by stirring, 1 quart spirits of 
turpentine, 1 pint asphaltum varnish, 1 pint of japan, 1 lb. dry 
burnt umber, 1 lb. dry Venetian red; apply with a brush. This 
stain is transparent, and allows the grain of the wood to show 
through. 

Another. — Boil i]4, ounces washing-soda, and % ounce bi- 
chromate of potash, in 1 quart of water; add 2^ ounces Vandyke 
brown. This stain may be used either hot or cold. 

Another. — With a brush apply a thin solution of permanganate 
of potassa in water, until the desired color is produced, allowing 
each coat to dry before another is applied. 

Oak Stain. — Add to a quart of water 2 ounces each of potash 
and pearlash. This is a very good stain, but it should be used 
carefully as it blisters the hands and softens brushes. The stain 
may be made lighter by adding more water. 

Other Oak Stains. — To darken the color of oak any of the fol- 
lowing may be used : 

Liquid ammonia laid on evenly with a rag or brush will deepen 
the color immediately, and it will not fade, this being an artificial 
production of result produced naturally by age. 

Bichromate of potash, dissolved in cold water, and applied with 
a brush, will produce a similar result. 

A decoction of green walnut-shells will bring new oak to any 
shade or nearly black. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 4 1 

Rosewood Stain. — Mix in a bottle % lb- of extract of log- 
wood, i oz. salts of tartar, and i pint of water; in another bottle, 
put i lb. of old iron in small pieces, and i pint of vinegar, which, 
after standing twenty-four hours, will be ready for use; make a 
hard stiff brush with a piece of rattan sharpened at one end in a 
wedge shape, pounding it so as to separate the fibre. Mix in 
i pint of varnish, y^ lb. of finely-powdered rose-pink. The mate- 
rials are now ready, and the first thing in the process is to stain the 
wood with the logwood stain ; give two coats of this, allowing the 
first to become nearly dry before applying the second ; then dip 
the rattan brush in the vinegar, and with it form the grain, after 
which give the work a coat of the varnish and rose pink. There 
can be no definite directions given for graining, except to study the 
natural wood and imitate it as near as possible. With the above 
materials skilfully applied, any common wood can be made to re- 
semble rosewood so nearly that it will take a good judge to dis- 
tinguish the difference. 

Another. — Boil 1 lb. of logwood in i gallon of water, add a 
double handful of walnut shells, boil the whole again, strain the 
liquor and add to it i pint of the best vinegar. It is then ready 
for use. Apply it boiling hot, and when the wood is dry, form red 
veins in imitation of the grain of rosewood with a brush dipped in 
the following solution : Nitric acid, i pint ; metallic tin, i oz.; sal 
ammoniac, i oz. Mix and set aside to dissolve, occasionally 
shaking. 

Cherry Stain. — Mix together, by stirring, i quart of spirits 
of turpentine, i pint of varnish, and i lb. of dry burnt sienna; 
apply with a brush, and after it has been on about five minutes 
wipe it off with rags. This stain takes about 12 hours to dry. 

Another Cherry Stain. — Take 1 quart alcohol, 2 ozs. of dragon's- 
blood ; pulverize the latter along with j^ oz. of alkanet root ; mix, 
and let stand in a warm place a couple of days. Shake frequently 
in the meantime. Apply with a sponge or brush. Two or three 
coats may be required. This makes a fine stain. 

Red Stain for Common Work. — Archil will produce a very 



42 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CAETNET-MAKERS, 

good stain of itself when used cold, but if after one or two coats 
have been applied and suffered to get almost dry, it is brushed 
over with a hot solution of pearlash in water, it will improve the 
color. 

Mahogany Stain. — To darken mahogany, apply a weak 
solution of bichromate of potash in water. Apply successive coats, 
allowing each to dry, until the required shade is secured. 

Surface Stains. — The following are for the most part used 
to apply to woods of inferior quality, to make them resemble 
choicer woods. The colors are all to be mixed with veiy thin glue 
size, laid on warm with a soft woollen material, and the wood 
wiped dry after application. All the colors used in staining should 
be well pulverized, and before use the liquid should be strained. 

Imitation Oak Stain. — Equal parts burnt umber and brown 
ochre. 

Imitation Mahogany Stain. — One part Venetian red and two 
parts yellow lead. 

Imitation Rosewood Stain. — Venetian red, darkened with lamp- 
black to required shade. 

Imitation Walnut Stain. — Burnt umber and yellow ochre, mixed 
in proportions to give desired shade. 

Fine Crimson Stain. — Boil i lb. of good Brazil dust in 
3 quarts of water for an hour; strain it, and add y> oz. of cochi- 
neal ; boil it again gently for half an hour, and it will be fit for use. 

If you will have it more of a scarlet tint, boil half an ounce of 
saffron in a quart of water for an hour, and pass over the work 
previous to the red stain. 

Purple Stain. — To i lb. of good chip logwood put 3 quarts 
of water; boil it well for an hour; then add 4 ozs. of pearlash, and 
2 ozs. of indigo pounded. 

Pine Blue Stain. — Into i lb. of oil of vitriol (sulphuric 
acid) in a clean glass phial, put 4 ozs. of indigo, and proceed as 
above directed in dyeing purple. 

Pine Green Stain. — To 2 pints of the strongest vinegar. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 43 

add 4 ozs. of the best verdigris pounded fine, ' 2 oz. of sap green, 
and j'j oz. of indigo. 

Distilled vinegar, or verjuice, improves the color. 

Yellow Stain. — Dissolve J^ lb. tumeric in 1 pint alcohol; 
let it stand until the tumeric settles to the bottom. 

Another. — A small piece of aloes added to the varnish will have 
all the effect of a bright yellow stain. 

TO Brighten Stains.— Any of the stains named (except 
the surface stains) will be rendered much more brilliant by an appli- 
cation of the following: 1 oz. nitric acid, */>, teaspoonful muriatic 
acid, y^ oz. grain tin, 2 ozs. rain water. Mix in a bottle, at least 
two days before using, and keep the bottle well corked. 



DYEING WOOD. 

Dyeing wood is mostly applied for the purpose of veneers, 
while staining is more generally had recourse to to give the desired 
color to the article after it has been manufactured. In the one 
case, the color should penetrate throughout, while in the latter the 
surface is all that is essential. 

In dyeing, pear-tree, holly and beech, take the best black; but 
for most colors, holly is preferable. It is also best to have wood 
as young and as newly cut as possible. After the veneers are cut, 
they should be allowed to lie in a trough of water for four or five 
days before they are put into the copper; as the water, acting as a 
purgative to the wood, brings out an abundance of slimy matter, 
which must be removed, or the wood will never be a good color. 
After this purificatory process, they should be dried in the open 
air for at least twelve hours. They are then ready for the copper. 
By these simple means the color will strike much quicker, and be 
of a brighter hue. It would also add to the improvement of the 
colors, if, after the veneers have boiled a few hours, they are taken 
out, dried in the air, and again immersed in the coloring copper. 
Always dry veneers in the open air, for fire invariably injures the 
colors. 



44 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

Fine Black Dye. — Put 6 lbs. of chip logwood into the 
copper, with as many veneers as it will conveniently hold, without 
pressing too tight ; fill it with water, and let it boil slowly for about 
three hours; then add half a pound of powdered verdigris, half a 
pound of copperas, and 4 ounces of bruised nut-galls ; fill the copper 
up with vinegar as the water evaporates; let it boil gently two 
hours each day till the wood is dyed through. 

Another. — Procure some liquor from a tanner's pit, or make a 
strong decoction of oak bark, and to every gallon of the liquor add 
a quarter of a pound of green copperas, and mix them well to- 
gether ; put the liquor into the copper, and make it quite hot, but 
not boil; immerse the veneers in it, and let them remain for an 
hour; take them out, and expose them to the air till it has pene- 
trated its substance; then add some logwood to the solution, place 
the veneers again in it, and let it simmer for two or three hours; 
let the whole cool gradually, dry the veneers in the shade, and 
they will be a very fine black. 

Fine Blue Dye. — Into a clean glass bottle put 1 lb. of oil 
of vitriol, and 4 ozs. of the best indigo pounded in a mortar (take 
care to set the bottle in a basin or earthen glazed pan, as it will 
ferment) ; then put the veneers into a copper or stone trough ; fill 
it rather more than one-third with water, and add as much of the 
vitriol and indigo (stirring it about) as will make a fine blue, which 
may be known by trying it with a piece of white paper or wood. 
Let the veneers remain till the dye has struck through. 

The color will be much improved if the solution of indigo in 
vitriol be kept a few weeks before using it. The color will strike 
better if the veneers are boiled in plain water till completely soaked 
through, and then allowed for a few hours to dry partially, previous 
to being immersed in the dye. 

Another. — Throw pieces of quicklime into soft water; stir it 
well; when settled, strain or pour off the clear part; then to every 
gallon add ten or twelve ounces of the best turnsole; put the 
whole into the copper with the veneers, which should be of white 
holly, and prepared as usual by boiling in water; let them simmer 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 45 

gently till the color has sufficiently penetrated, but be careful not 
to let them boil in it, as it would injure the color. 

A Fine Yellow Dye. — Reduce 4 lbs. of the root of 
barberry, by sawing, to dust, which put in a copper or brass 
trough ; add 4 ozs. of turmeric and 4 gallons of water, then put in 
as many white holly veneers as the liquor will cover ; boil them 
together for three hours, often turning them ; when cool, add 2 
ozs. of aquafortis and the dye will strike through much sooner. 

A Bright YellOW Dye. — To every gallon of water neces- 
sary to cover the veneers, add 1 lb. of French berries ; boil the 
veneers till the color has penetrated through; add to the infusion 
of the French berries, the liquid for brightening colors given on 
page 43, and let the veneers remain for two or three hours, and the 
color will be very bright. 

Bright Green Dye. — Proceed as in either of the previous 
receipts to produce a yellow ; but instead of adding aquafortis or 
the brightening liquid, add as much vitriolated indigo (see page 44) 
as will produce the desired color. 

Green Dye. — Dissolve 4 ozs. of the best verdigris, and of 
sap-green and indigo half an ounce each, in 3 pints of the best 
vinegar; put in the veneers, and gently boil till the color has pene- 
trated sufficiently. 

The hue of the green may be varied by altering the proportion 
of the ingredients ; and it is advised, unless wanted for a particular 
purpose, to leave out the sap-green, as it is a vegetable color very 
apt to change, or turn brown, when exposed to the air. 

Bright Red Dye.— To 2 lbs. of genuine Brazil dust, add 4 
gallons of water; put in as many veneers as the liquor will cover; 
boil them for three hours ; then add 2 ozs. of alum, and 2 ozs. of 
aquafortis, and keep it lukewarm until it has struck through. 

Red Dye. — To every pound of logwood chips, add 2 gal- 
lons of water ; put in the veneers, and boil as in the last ; then add 
a sufficient quantity of the brightening liquid (see page 43) till you 
see the color to your mind ; keep the whole as warm as the finger 
can be borne in it, till the color has sufficiently penetrated. 



46 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

The logwood chips should be picked from all foreign substances, 
with which it generally abounds, as bark, dirt, etc.; and it is always 
best when fresh cut, which may be known by its appearing of a 
bright-red color; for if stale, it will look brown, and not yield so 
much coloring matter. 

Purple Dye. — To 2 lbs. of chip logwood and half a pound 
of Brazil dust, add 4 gallons of water, and after putting in the 
veneers, boil them for at least three hours; then add 6 ozs. of 
pearlash and 2 ozs. of alum ; let them boil for two or three hours 
every day, till the color has struck through. 

The Brazil dust only contributes to make the purple of a more 
red cast; you may, therefore, omit it, if you require a deep bluish 
purple. 

Another. — Boil 2 lbs. of logwood, either in chips or powder, in 4 
gallons of water, with the veneers ; after boiling till the color is well 
struck in, add by degrees vitriolated indigo (see page 44) till the 
purple is of the shade required, which may be known by trying it 
with a piece of paper; let it then boil for one hour, and keep the 
liquid in a milk-warm state till the color has penetrated the veneer. 
This method, when properly managed, will produce a brilliant 
purple, not so likely to fade as the foregoing. 

Liqilid for Brightening and Setting Colors. — To every 
pint of strong aquafortis, add 1 oz. of grain tin, and a piece of sal- 
ammoniac of the size of a walnut ; set it by to dissolve, shake the 
bottle round with the cork out, from time to time; in the course of 
two or three days it will be fit for use. This will be found an ad- 
mirable liquid to add to any color, as it not only brightens it, but 
renders it less likely to fade from exposure to the air. 

Orange Dye. — Let the veneers be dyed by either of the 
methods given in page 45, of a fine deep yellow, and while they 
are still wet and saturated with the dye, transfer them to the bright 
red dye as in page 45, till the color penetrates equally throughout. 

Silver Gray Dye. — Expose to the weather in a cast iron 
pot of six or eight gallons, old iron nails, hoops, etc., till covered 
with rust ; add 1 gallon of vinegar and 2 of water, boil all well for 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 47 

an hour ; have the veneers ready, which must be hard-wood (not too 
dry), put them in the copper used to dye black, and pour the iron 
liquor over them; add 1 lb. of chip logwood and 2 ozs. of bruised 
nut-galls; then boil up another pot of the iron liquor to supply 
the copper with, keeping the veneers covered, and boiling two 
hours a day, till the required color is obtained. 

Gray Dye. — Expose any quantity of old iron, or what is 
better, the borings of gun-barrels, etc., in any convenient vessel, 
and from time to time sprinkle them with spirits of salt (muriatic 
acid) diluted in four times its quantity of water, till they are very 
thickly covered with rust ; then to every six pounds add a gallon 
of water, in which has been dissolved two ounces of salt of tartar; 
lay the veneers in the copper, and cover them with this liquid; let 
it boil for two or three hours till well soaked, then to every gallon 
of liquor add a quarter of a pound of green copperas, and keep the 
whole at a moderate temperature till the dye has sufficiently pene- 
trated. 



GILDING, SILVERING AND BRONZING. 

Gilding, Silvering and Bronzing are processes of 

applying to previously prepared surfaces a thin layer of gold or 
silver leaf, or in bronzing, of a fine powder, prepared from various 
metals anil intended to imitate the peculiar appearance of genuine 
bronze. The processes of gilding and silvering being identical, the 
description of one will suffice to explain the other. 

Gilding. — Gold leaf, applied to articles of furniture as a 
means of decoration, is used in two ways ; it is applied over an 
ordinary varnish or other finish, in which case but little fecial 
preparation is necessary ; or, as when used for picture frames, cor- 
nices, etc., it is applied to a specially prepared foundation, the basis 
of which is whiting, mixed with various other ingredieuts suggested 
by experience or fancy. In either case, the gold leaf is caused to 
adhere to the work, by size specially prepared for the purpose, re- 
ceipts for which follow herewith ; the size being first applied to the 



48 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

■work, and when it has become of the right consistency, the gold is 
laid upon it. Oil-Gilding and Burnish-Gilding are different 
methods used to obtain certain desired effects, the former princi- 
pally for articles exposed to the weather, and for heightening the 
effect of incised carving or engraving, and the latter for picture- 
frames and articles having a specially prepared foundation, whose 
entire surface is to be gilded. It is intended that the gold shall 
adhere to the work only in the places to which the size has been 
applied, but the smallest portion of oil or even a slight dampness 
may cause the gold to partially adhere to the adjoining surface, re- 
sulting in slightly ragged edges; to prevent this, before applying 
the size to the desired design, the entire surface is covered with a 
thin film of some substance perfectly free from moisture, and easily 
removable by water, after completion of the process. Directions 
regarding this preliminary process are given under the caption : To 
Prevent Gold Adhering. 

The Requisites. — First, a sufficient quantity of leaf-gold, 
which is of two sorts— the deep gold, as it is called, and the pale 
gold. The former is the best; the latter very useful, and may 
occasionally be introduced for variety or effect. 

Second, a gilder's cushion : an oblong piece of wood, covered 
with rough calf-skin, stuffed with flannel several times doubled, 
with a border of parchment, about four inches deep, at one end, to 
prevent the air blowing the leaves about when placed on the 
cushion. 

Thirdly, a gilding-knife, with a straight and very smooth edge, 
to cut the gold. 

Fourthly, several camel-hair pencils in sizes, and tips, made of 
a few long camel's hairs put between two cards, in the same man- 
ner as hairs are put into tin cases for brushes, thus making a flat 
brush with a very few hairs. 

Lastly, a burnisher, which is a crooked piece of agate set in a 
long wooden handle. 

Sizes. — These are of two kinds: oil sizes are those which 
when applied, present an adhesive surface, requiring the immediate 






UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 49 

laying of the gold-leaf upon it; of this class is the oil-size com- 
monly used in decorating furniture ; water-sizes are those that are 
allowed to become dry and hard when applied, and are rendered 
adhesive when the gold is to be laid, by brushing over with water ; 
for burnish-gilding these are always employed, as oil-size does not 
dry sufficiently hard to permit of burnishing. 

Oil-Size for Oil-Gildillg. — Grind calcined red-ochre 
with the best and oldest drying-oil. When desired for use, add suf- 
ficient oil of turpentine to make it work freely. 

Parchment-Size. — For preparing Frames, etc. — To half a 
pound of parchment shavings, or cuttings of white leather, add 
three quarts of water, and boil it in a proper vessel till reduced to 
nearly-half the quantity ; then take it off the fire, and strain it 
through a sieve. Be careful in the boiling to keep it well stirred, 
and do not let burn. 

Gold-Size for Burnish-Gilding. — Grind fine sal- 
ammoniac well with a muller and stone ; scrape into it a little beef 
suet, and grind all well together; after which, mix in with a pallet- 
knife a small proportion of parchment-size with a double propor- 
tion of water. When about to use, add parchment-size until it will 
just flow from the brush. 

Another. — Grind a lump of tobacco-pipe clay into a veiy stiff 
paste with thin size ; add a small quantity of ruddle and fine 
black lead, ground very fine, and temper the whole with a small 
piece of tallow. When ready to use, reduce with parchment-size 
until it will just flow from the brush. 

Another. — Grind separately in water, i lb. Armenian bole, 2 ozs. 
red lead, a sufficient quantity of black lead; mix, and regrind with 
a small quantity of olive oil. Reduce with parchment-size to the 
proper consistency. 

To Prevent Gold Adhering.— Either one of the fol- 
lowing methods will prevent gold-leaf or bronze from adhering to 
the surface beyond the outlines of the sizing laid on to receive it: 

1. Whiting used dry, and applied by means of a pounce bag. 

2. Whiting mixed in water, and applied with a soft brush. 



50 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

When the water has evaporated, dust off the superfluous whiting 
with an ordinary paint duster. By this method a very thin coat- 
ing of whiting remains, which is free from any griltiness. One 
advantage gained by the use of whiting thus applied is, it furnishes 
a whitish ground over which clear varnish or oil-size may be dis- 
tinctly seen as the striping progresses. After the leaf or bronze 
has been applied, the work must be carefully washed, so as to in- 
sure the removal of the whiting. 

3. "White of egg reduced with water, and applied with a piece of 
sponge. 

4. A thin wash of starch water, either brushed on with a flat 
camel-hair brush, or applied with a soft sponge. 

5. Take ball liquorice and water, a weak solution, and apply 
with a soft brush. This may be kept in a bottle ready for use at 
any time. 

6. Cut a new potato in two, and rub over the part to be sized 
with the raw face exposed, allowing the juice to remain until dry. 

It will be observed that any substance which interposes a film 
-over the varnish, itself -being free from tackiness and readily re- 
moved by water, will answer the purpose. 

Oil Gilding. — Applying the Gold. — If the wood to be 
gilded is finished with varnish or otherwise, no additional founda- 
tion is necessary upon which to lay the gold-leaf; if the wood is 
not finished, after it has been smoothed and dusted, give it one or 
two coats of parchment size, after it is perfectly dry and hard, 
again smoothing the surface with fine sand-paper. That the gold 
may not adhere to any part of the work except where the size is 
hard, powder the surface lightly with whiting from a pounce-bag, 
which is a small bag made of material sufficiently loose to permit' 
the powdered whiting to sift through as fine dust; if preferred, J 
any of the preceding receipts for that purpose can be used instead 
Remove the surplus whiting with the dusting-brush, and the work] 
is then ready for the size. Apply this with a sable or fit brush oil 
the proper size, carefully observing to make the outer lines o 1 
the design clear and sharp, that the work may not appear ragged 
Let the size remain until it feels tacky, when the gold may be ap 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 51 

plied. This is the most difficult part of the operation, and experi- 
ence is necessary before gold-leaf can be laid smoothly without a 
wrinkle or a break. Turn a leaf of gold out of the book upon the 
cushion ; breathe gently upon the centre of the leaf and it will lay 
flat on the cushion ; cut it to the proper size by bringing the knife 
perpendicularly over it, and sawing it gently until divided. Take 
your tip (a brush used for the purpose) and after drawing it lightly 
over your hair to remove any particles or dust that may be upon 
it, breathe upon it gently, which will dampen it sufficiently to 
cause the leaf of gold to adhere to it ; lay the tip upon the leaf of 
gold and carefully transfer it to the work; blow upon it gently and 
it will straighten out and adhere. It may be rendered quite smooth 
by slightly dabbing it with a bit of cotton. In about an hour wash 
off the superfluous gold from the edges, with a sponge and water. 
If the article is to be exposed to the weather or much wear, the 
gilding may be varnished with copal varnish. 

Burnish-Gilding. — As previously stated, this process re- 
quires a specially prepared foundation upon which to lay the gold, 
and as the preparation of this foundation is a distinct trade, the 
furniture dealer or cabinet-maker seldom finds it necessary to un- 
dertake it, the articles coming to his hand ready-prepared for gild- 
ing; but as in repairing picture-frames, cornices, mirror frames, 
etc., it frequently becomes necessary to renew the foundation, a 
comprehensive description of the whole process is given. 

Preparing the Wood-work. — After smoothing and 

dusting the work, coat the frames in every part with boiling-hot 
parchment-size, as previously described, then mix a sufficient quan- 
tity of whiting with size to the consistency of thick cream, and with 
it by means of a brush, coat every part of the frame several times, 
permitting each coat to become perfectly dry before proceeding 
with the next. The wood will thus be covered with a layer of hard 
whiting nearly or quite a sixteenth of an inch in thickness. The 
size must not be too thick, and when mixed with the whiting 
should not be so hot as the preliminary coat of size. 



52 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 






Polishing. — When the prepared frames are quite dry, clean 
and polish them. To do this, wet a small piece at a time, and, 
with a smooth, fine piece of cloth, dipped in water, rub the part till 
all the bumps and inequalities are removed; and for those parts 
where the fingers will not enter, as the mouldings, etc., wind the 
wet cloth round a piece of wood, and by this means make the sur- 
face all smooth and even alike. 

Where there is carved work, etc., it will sometimes be necessary 
to bring the mouldings to their original sharpness by means of 
chisels, gouges, etc., as the preparation will be apt to fill up all the 
finer parts of the work, which must be thus restored. It is some- 
times the practice, after polishing, to go over the work once with 
fine yellow or Roman ochre ; but this is rarely necessary. 

Applying the Size. — Select the proper gold size from the 
receipts previously given ; add parchment size until it will just flow 
from the brush; make it quite hot, and apply it to the work with a 
very soft brush, taking care not to make the first coat too thick; 
let it dry and give two or three successive coats, after the last brush- 
ing it with a stiff brush to remove any inequalities. The work is 
then ready for the gold. 

Laying the Gold. — The manipulation of the gold-leaf has 
been described under the heading Oil-Gilding. In the process 
now being described, the size used (being water-size, which as pre- 
viously explained is permitted to become hard and dry after being 
applied) must be moistened to cause the gold-leaf to adhere to it. 
For this purpose, with a long-haired camel-hair pencil, dipped in 
water, go over as much of the work as you intend the piece of 
gold to cover; then lay the gold upon it in the manner previously 
explained. Be sure that the part to which the gold is applied is 
sufficiently wet; indeed it must be floating, or the gold will be apt 
to crack. Proceed in this manner a little at a time, and do not 
attempt to cover too much at once, until by experience you are 
able to handle the gold with freedom. In proceeding with the 
work, if any flows or cracks appear, immediately apply a portion of 
gold sufficient to cover them. Sometimes when the gold does not 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 53 

appear to adhere sufficiently tight, it will be necessary to draw a 
pencil quite filled with water close to the edge of the gold, that the 
water may run underneath it and soften the size. 

Burnishing. — When the work is covered with gold, set it 
by to dry ; there is a particular state or degree of dryness, known 
only by experience in which the moulding is in a fit state for 
burnishing; it will probably be ready to burnish in about eight or 
ten hours, but it will depend on the warmth of the room or state 
of the air. 

When it is ready, those parts intended to be burnished must be 
dusted with a soft brush ; then wiping the burnisher with a piece 
of soft wash-leather (quite dry) begin to burnish about an inch or 
two in length at a time, taking care not to bear too hard, but with 
a gentle and quick motion, applying the tool until all the parts of 
the surface are equally bright. 

Matting or Dead Gold. — Certain portions only of the 
work are burnished, according to the fancy, and the facility with 
which the burnishing-tool can be applied ; the remaining parts are 
now to be deprived of their metallic lustre, to make a more effective 
contrast with the burnishing. The parts thus treated are said to 
be matted or dead-gold. The process is as follows : 

Grind some vermilion or yellow ochre very fine, and mix a veiy 
small portion either with the parchment size or with the white of 
an egg, and with a very soft brush lay it evenly on the parts to be 
dulled ; if well done, it will add greatly to the beauty of the work. 
Previous to matting, the work must be well cleared of superfluous 
gold, by means of a soft brush. 

Finishing. — In elaborate works it is frequently impossible 
to lay gold-leaf into all the intricacies of an elaborate design, and 
the parts thus left bare must be finished by touching up with a 
small brush charged with shell-gold, or gold-powder, mixed with 
gum-Arabic to the proper consistency. The following receipt de- 
scribes the preparation of shell-gold : 

Shell Gold. — Take any quantity of leaf-gold and grind it 
with a small portion of honey, to a fine powder, add a little gum- 



54 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

Arabic and sugar- candy, with a little water, and mix it well 
together ; let it dry. 

Silver Size. — Grind pipe-clay fine with a little black-lead 
and good soap, and add parchment-size as directed for gold-size. 

Composition for Frame Ornaments.— The orna- 
ments for gilded mirror-frames, etc., are usually moulded from 
some plastic substance that is somewhat tougher and more durable 
than the ordinary gilding foundation of whiting and size. The 
proper moulds being prepared they are thoroughly rubbed upon 
the inside with sweet oil, and the composition firmly pressed in ; 
after removing the mould the cast may be dried by a gentle heat, 
or while still plastic it can be applied in its proper place and bent 
into any position. Following are receipts for composition : 

Dissolve ilb. of glue in i gallon of water. In another kettle boil 
together 2 lbs. of resin, 1 gill of Venice turpentine, and 1 pint of 
linseed oil; mix altogether in one kettle, and boil and stir till the 
water has evaporated. Turn the whole into a tub of finely-rolled 
whiting, and work it till it is of the consistency of dough. 

Boil 7 lbs. of best glue in 7 half-pints of water. Melt 3 lbs. of 
white resin in 3 pints of raw linseed oil. When the above has 
been well boiled put them into a large vessel and simmer them for 
half an hour, stirring the mixture and taking care that it does 
not boil over. The whole must then be turned into a box of 
whiting rolled and sifted, and mixed till it is of the consistency of 
dough. 

To Manipulate Gold Leaf.— Get a piece of paper, thin 
enough to show shadow of gold-leaf through, slightly wax it, lay it 
on gold-leaf, the latter will then adhere, and can be easily worked, 
and will come off clean. The paper should be slightly larger than 
the gold-leaf, and the fingers passed over the paper to make the 
gold-leaf adhere. 

Bronzing. — This is a process for imitating on metal, plaster, 
wood, or other material, the peculiar appearance produced by 
chemical action upon the surface of bronze metal. It is accom- 
plished by spreading over the surface of the material to be orna- 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 5g 

men ted a very thin coating of bronze-powder, which is caused to 
adhere either by applying it directly upon a coating of any of the 
sizes mentioned in the foregoing pages, or by mixing with a vehicle, 
such as gum-Arabic or transparent varnish. The latter is most de- 
sirable, as in the other case, being subject to the direct action of 
the atmosphere, the bronze-powder soon tarnishes. In ornament- 
ing furniture, bronzing is generally employed to represent gilding, a 
variety of bronze called gold-bronze being used, which affords an 
excellent imitation but is not very lasting. It is usually applied 
after the completion of . the other finishing processes, the ground- 
work being prepared in the manner described under Oil-Gilding, 
and the size likewise applied as there described. A small wad of 
cotton-batting is then dipped in the bronze and passed gently over 
the sized portions, causing the bronze to adhere. In the other 
method — that of applying the bronze by means of a vehicle — the 
preliminaries of whiting the ground and sizing are not necessary, a 
small quantity of bronze being simply mixed with the vehicle em- 
ployed to such a degree of fluidity that it will flow easily, and ill 
that condition applied with a fine brush. Many preparations are 
used as vehicles, such as transparent varnish thinned with turpen- 
tine, gum-Arabic dissolved in water, and gold-size reduced with 
parchment-size. There are a variety of colors in bronze-powders, 
and to produce the best effect the size or vehicle should be of a 
color similar to that of the bronze used; in gold-size the coloring 
pigment is ochre, and in its place, for green-bronze, red-bronze, or 
blue-bronze, may be employed respectively verditer, vermilion or 
Prussian blue, a very small quantity being sufficient. In bronzing 
on painted work the ground should be as nearly as possible the 
color of the bronze to be applied. 



GRAINING AND COLOR WORK. 

Graining. — This is a variety of painting by which the grain, 
color or texture of different woods is imitated. Considerable ex- 
perience is necessary to produce satisfactory results, the mixing 
of the colors to the right shade, and the manipulation of the 



56 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

simple tools in a manner to faithfully imitate the grain and mark- 
ings of the wood, requiring a high degree of skill. Of course these 
remarks do not apply to that variety of graining in which only a 
variegated surface is aimed at, and no pretensions made to a close 
imitation of any wood ; that simple process requires neither skill 
nor judgment. 

The peculiar effect of graining is produced by the use of several 
shades of paint, the lightest being first applied ; the design being 
drawn by wiping off a certain portion of the second and third or 
darker coats, while still in a moist condition, the intermediate and 
light shades below are partially uncovered, the contrast of the dif- 
ferenS^shades resembling the effect of the more prominent markings 
of the grain of wood. This resemblance is heightened by pro- 
cesses called " stippling " and " blending " which, as indicated by 
their titles, blend the shades and soften the lines. 

The tools required are a stippling-brush, which is a brush with 
hairs about six or eight inches long; a kalsominer's brush will 
answer the purpose ; a blending-brush, which is made from camel's 
or badger's hair and is very soft; two or three steel combs of dif- 
ferent sizes ; a rubber like a pencil-rubber, about the size of the 
thumb and rounded off at the ends, to convenient size. 

The Process Of Graining. — If there are any knots or 
sappy places in the article, they should be covered with one or two 
coats of glue-size or parchment-size to prevent them showing 
through. The work is then ready for the paint, three different 
shades being necessary. These are called the ground-color; the 
stippling color ; and the graining or oil-color, and they are laid in 
the order named. An infinite number of combinations of colors 
are possible, obtained by the use of various coloring pigments in 
the different coats, and no two grainers agree as to the precise pro- 
portion of the ingredients to be used in imitating different woods; 
we give a number of receipts for graining grounds, and also for 
mixing various colors ; the learner can vary the proportions to suit 
his taste as experience dictates, and to suit the work in hand. The 
ground color is used to represent the lightest part of the grain ot 
the wood, the stippling color the intermediate shades, and the 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 57 

graining color ihe darkest parts ; a close study of natural woods 
will therefore be necessary to determine the color and depth of 
each. 

The proper ground being selected (see Graining Grounds) 
apply one or more coats — as many as are necessary to thoroughly 
cover the surface. As soon as the ground: color is hard the stip- 
pling coat may be applied. This is prepared by mixing the dry 
pigments without oil, with either very thin gum-water, stale beer, 
or vinegar containing a small portion of dissolved fish-glue. The 
pigments to be used, as stated above, are usually about the same as 
those used for the ground color, but of different proportions to pro- 
duce a deeper shade. Apply the stippling color, and before it 
dries beat it softly with the side of the stippler, the long elastic 
hairs of which, disturbing the surface of the laid coat, cause the 
lighter coat beneath to become indistinctly visible, and pro- 
duce the effect of the pores of wood. Next apply the graining 
color; as soon as it is laid, take the rubber and with it wipe out 
the larger veins to be shown, after each stroke wiping the paint 
from the rubber with a cloth held in the other hand for that pur- 
pose. Some grainers use a small sponge for veining, and others a 
small piece of cloth over the thumb, but the rubber is probably the 
most convenient. When the veins have been put in, to imitate as 
closely as possible the markings of natural wood, the various steel 
combs are brought into use, and the edges of the veins, and some- 
times other portions of the work, combed with them, to soften the 
abrupt transition from the dark to the lighter shades. The blender 
is also now brought into use, and wherever the work may require 
it, the colors are still more softened and blended by its soft hairs. 
When too much color has been removed in veining, or when a 
certain figure, such as a knot, is required, the work is touched up 
with a fine brush, and again softened with the blender. When 
dry a coat of transparent varnish should be applied, having con- 
siderable oil to render it durable, as grained work is frequently 
washed. 

Ready made graining colors are recommended as best and 
cheapest. 



58 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

Graining Grounds. — Subjoined are a few recipes for mix 
ing ground colors. 

Light Wainscot Oak. — White lead and yellow ochre, mixed to 
the required tint. Some grainers prefer a perfectly white ground 
for very light oak for inside work, but it is always difficult for any 
but a perfect master of the art to proceed satisfactorily on. a white 
ground, and the work, when completed, is apt to have a chalky 
effect, even though a dark varnish be applied. 

A Darker Wainscot Oak. — Mix white lead, middle chrome, and 
yellow ochre. 

Dark Oak. — White lead, Venetian red, and yellow ochre. 

Very Dark Oak. — White lead, raw sienna, burnt umber, and 
Venetian red; or burnt and raw sienna, white lead, and burnt 
umbei'. 

'These colors, mixed in different proportions, will produce a 
multiplicity of tints suitable to receive the graining color, their 
strength being of course determined by the greater or lesser pre- 
ponderance of white lead. 

Mahogany Grounds. — There are various notions extant amongst 
grainers as to the best grounds for mahogany graining, some pre- 
ferring a ground of a deep yellow cast, while others choose one 
approaching a bright red. The reds and yellows used are Vene 
tian red, red lead, vermilion, raw sienna, burnt sienna, orange 
chrome, middle chrome, etc. These colors can be mixed to the 
tint required, an addition of white lead being made in each case, 
as the positive reds and yellows are too powerful unless diluted inj 
turn by white. Venetian red, orange chrome, and white lead are 1 
the colors most generally used, and these three will, according to 
their predominance or subordination, make such a variety of tints 
that the most fastidious grainer need have no misgiving that tin 
result will not come up to his expectation, if he exercise due dis 
cretion in mixing the colors. 

Rosewood Ground. — Venetian red, vermilion, and white lead 
A little scarlet lake is added for superior work, but this of cours 
is too expensive for general use. Some painters mix with the red 
a small quantity of raw sienna or chrome yellow. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 59 

BinVs-Eye Maple. — White lead alone is preferred by some 
graiuers, but the majority of painters use a little yellow ochre to 
kill the rawness of the white, and this is much the better plan to 
adopt. Beginners are apt to make the ground too yellow, a mis- 
take that should be avoided at the outset, as the varnish which has 
subsequently to be coated over the work will give transparency, 
and add a pale creamy tone, whereas, if the ground be too yellow, 
the result will be heaviness. 

Spirit Graining for Oak. — Two pounds of whiting, 

quarter of a pound of gold size, thinned down with spirits of tur- 
pentine; then tinge your whiting with Vandyke brown and raw 
sienna, ground fine. Strike out your lights with a fitch dipped in 
turpentine, tinged with a little color to show the lights. If your 
lights do not appear clear, add a little more turpentine. Turpen- 
tine varnish is a good substitute for the above mentioned. This 
kind of graining must be brushed over with beer, with a clean 
brush, before varnishing. Strong beer must be used for glazing up 
top-graining and shading. 

Oil for Graining Oak. — Grind Vandyke brown in tur- 
pentine, add as much gold-size as will set, and as much soft soap 
as will make it stand the comb. Should it set too quickly, add a 
little boiled oil Put a teaspoonful of gold-size to half a pint of 
turpentine, and as much soap as will lie on a twenty-five cent 
piece, then take a little soda mixed with water and take out the 
veins. 

To Prepare the Ground for Oak Rollers.— Stain 

your white lead with raw sienna and red lead, or with chrome 
yellow and Venetian red ; thin it with oil and turps, and strain for 
use. When the ground work is dry, grind in beer, Vandyke brown, 
whiting and a little burnt sienna, for the graining color; or you 
may use raw sienna with a little whiting, umbers, etc. 

TO Imitate Old Oak. — To make an exceedingly rich 
color for the imitation of old oak, the ground is a composition of 
stone ochre or orange chrome and burnt sienna; the graining color 



60 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CAU1NF.T-MAKERS, 

is burnt umber or Vandyke brown, to darken it a little. Observe 
that the above colors must be used whether the imitation is in oil 
or distemper. When dry, varnish. 

To Imitate Old Oak, in Oil.— Grind Vandyke and 
whiting in turpentine, add a bit of common soap to make it stand 
the comb, and thin it with boiled oil. 

To Imitate Pollard Oak.— The ground color is pre- 
pared with a mixture of chrome yellow, vermilion and white lead, 
to a rich light buff. The graining colors are Vandyke brown and 
small portions of raw and burnt sienna and lake ground in ale or 
beer. Fill a large tool with color, spread over the surface to be 
grained, and soften with the badger-hair brush. Take a moistened 
sponge between the thumb and finger, and dapple round and round 
in kind of knobs, then soften very lightly ; then draw a softener 
from one set of knobs to the other while wet, to form a multiplicity 
of grains, and finish the knots with a hair pencil, in some places in 
thicker clusters than others. When dry put the top grain on in a 
variety of directions, and varnish with turps and gold-size; then 
glaze up with Vandyke and strong ale. To finish, varnish with 
copal. 

To Imitate Mottled Mahogany.— The ground is pre 

pared with the best English Venetian red, red lead, and a smalii 
portion of white lead. The graining colors are burnt sienna, ground) 
in ale, with a small portion of Vandyke brown, sufficient to take! 
away the fiery appearance of the sienna. Cover the surface to be) 
grained, soften with the badger-hair brush, and while wet take a! 
mottling-roller and go over the lights a second time, in order tc 
give a variety of shade, then blend the whole of the work with th 
badger softener. Put the top grain on with the same color. Whei 
dry, varnish. 

To Imitate Rosewood. — Mix vermilion and a smal 
quantity of white lead for the ground. Take rose-pink, tinget; 
with a little lampblack or Vandyke brown, and grind very fine ill 
oil, then take a flat graining brush, with the hairs cut away at uiv 
equal distances, and cut down the grain as if wending round ; 






UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 6 1 

knot. When nearly dry, take a graining comb that is used for 
oak, and draw down the grain. This will give it the appearance 
of nature. When dry, varnish. 

Another. — The ground color is prepared with vermilion and 
small quantities of white lead and crimson lake. When the ground 
is dry and made very smooth, take Vandyke brown, ground in 
oil, and with a small tool spread the color over the surface in dif- 
ferent directions forming kind of knots. Before the work is dry, 
take a piece of leather, and with great freedom strike out the light 
veins; having previously ' prepared the darkest tint of Vandyke 
brown, or gum asphaltum, immediately take the flat graining brush 
with few hairs in it, draw the grain over the work and soften. 
When varnished, the imitation will be excellent. 

Rosewood Imitation in Size. — Mix Venetian red, 
white-lead powder, vermilion and common size, the consistency of 
which, when cold, must be that of a weak trembling jelly. With 
this composition paint the work twice over. When the ground is 
dry take some lampblack, finely ground in beer, and beat the white 
of an egg into it; take the flat graining brush, dipped in the black, 
and put on the grain. When dry, stain the first coat of varnish 
with rose pink, finely ground in turpentine, and finish the work by 
giving it a coat of clear varnish. 

To Imitate Bird's-Eye Maple.— The ground is a light 

buff, prepared with white lead, chrome yellow, and a little vermil- 
ion or English' Venetian red, to take off the rawness of the yellow. 
The graining color is equal parts of raw umber and sienna ground 
in oil to the proper consistency. Spread the surface of the work 
with this color, and, having some of the same prepared a little 
thicker, immediately take a sash tool or sponge, and put on the 
dark shades, and soften with the badger-hair brush ; before the color 
is dry put on the eyes by dabbing the dotting machine on the 
work. When dry, put on the grain with the camel-hair pencil on 
the prominent parts, to imitate the small hearts of the wood. When 
dry, varnish. 

TO Imitate Curled Maple.— Prepare a light yellow for 



62 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

the ground, by mixing chrome yellow and white lead, tinged with 
Venetian red. The graining color is a mixture of equal portions of 
raw sienna and Vandyke, ground in ale; spread the surface to be 
grained in an even manner; then with a piece of cork rub across 
the work to and fro, to form the grains which run across the wood. 
When dry, varnish. 

Curled Maple in Oil for Outside Work.— Pre- 
pare a rich ground by mixing chrome yellow, white lead and burnt 
sienna. For the graining color, grind equal parts of raw sienna 
and umber with a little burnt copperas in turpentine, and mix with 
a small quantity of grainer's cream. ' Thin the color with boiled 
oil ; then fill a tool and spread the surface even, and rub out the 
lights with the sharp edge of a piece of buff leather, which must 
now and then be wiped to keep it clean; soften the edges of the 
work very lightly, and when dry, put on the top grain with burnt 
umber and raw sienna, ground in beer, with the white of an egg beat 
into it. When dry, varnish. 

SatinwOOd. — This ground is prepared with white lead, stone 
ochre, and small quantities of chrome yellow and burnt sienna. 
The graining color is one-third of raw sienna and whiting, ground 
in pale ale, very thin ; then spread the color over the surface to be 
grained. While wet, soften, and have ready a wet roller or mot- 
tling brush, in order to take out the lights; blend the whole with 
the badger-hair brush. AVhen the work is dry, take the flat brush, 
and with the same color, put on the top again. When dry, varnish. 

To Imitate Yew Tree. — The ground is a reddish buff. 
For the graining color grind in beer equal portions of Vandyke 
brown and burnt sienna, with a small quantity of raw sienna. 
When the ground is dry, spread the surface even with the color, 
and soften; then with a piece of cork with a sharp edge, rub the 
work cross and cross in order to form the fine grain. When dry, 
dij) the tip of your fingers in the graining color to form the eyes or: 
knots, and put in the small touches with a camel-hair pencil 
When dry, put on the top grain, and when this is dry, varnish. 



porta 
fe i 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 63 

To Imitate Black and Gold Marble.— This descrip- 
tion of marble is now in great demand The ground is a deep jet 
black, or a dead color, in gold-size, drop black and turps; second 
coat, black japan. Commence vtining; mix white and yellow 
ochre with a small quantity of vermilion to give a gold tinge ; dip 
the pencil in this color, and dab on the ground with great freedom 
some large patches, from which small threads must be drawn in 
various directions. In the deepest parts of the black a white vein 
is sometimes seen running with a g''eat number of small veins at- 
tached to it; but care must be taken that these threads are con- 
nected with, and run in some degree in the same direction with 
the thicker veins. If durability is not an object, and the work is 
required in a short time, it may be executed very quick in distem- 
per colors, and when varnished it will look well. 

Red Marble. — For the ground, put on a white tinged with 
lake or vermilion ; then apply deep rich reds in patches, filling up 
the intermediate spaces with brown and white mixed in oil ; then 
blend them together ; if in quick drying colors, use about half turps 
-and gold size. When dry, varnish ; and while the varnish is wet, 
put in a multitude of the fine white threads, crossing the whole 
work in all directions, as the wet varnish brings the pencil to a fine 
point. 

Jasper Marble. — Put on a white ground lightly tinged with 
blue; then put on patches of rich reds or rose pink, leaving spaces 
of the white grounds; then partly cover those spaces with various 
browns to form fossils, in places running veins; then put in a few 
spots of white in the centre of some of the red patches, and leaving 

'\ in places masses nearly all white. "When dry, use the clearest 

'1 varnish. 

Blue and Gold Marble. — For the ground put on a light 
blue; then lake blue, with a small piece of white lead and some 
idark common blue, and dab on the ground on patches, leaving 
portions of the ground to shine between; then blend the edges 
together with duster or softener; afterwards draw on some white 
veins in every direction, leaving large open spaces to be filled 



64 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

up with a pale yellow or gold-paint; finish with some line white 
running threads, and a coat of varnish at last. 

To Imitate Granite. — For the ground color, stain your 
white lead to a light lead-color, with lampblack and a little rose- 
pink. Throw on black spots, with a graniting machine, a pale red, 
and fill up with white before the ground is dry. 

Another. — A black ground when half dry, throw in vermilion, a 
deep yellow and white spots. 

To Imitate Hair Wood. — For the ground color, take 
white lead and thin it with turpentine, and slightly stain it with 
equal quantities of Prussian blue and lampblack. For the grain- 
ing color, grind in beer a mixture of Prussian blue and raw sienna ; 
when the ground is dry, spread a transparent coat of the graining 
color on the surface of the work, and soften ; then with the cork 
mottle by rubbing it to and fro across the work, to form the fine 
long grain or mottle. When this is done, soften and top grain in 
wavy but perpendicular directions; varnish when dry. 

Graining Grounds. — The best and cheapest and most 
convenient simple material, for making grounds for light oak, 
maple, ash, and chestnut, is pure raw Italian sienna, tinted with 
pure white lead, not the so-called sienna which is sold by most 
paint dealers under that name, but the genuine article, which can 
be, and should be obtained even at some cost and trouble, the said 
article being one of the most useful and indispensable articles in 
the paint shop. For maple ground, of course the smallest quantity 
is required, it being necessary only to change the white to the 
faintest suggestion of straw color. For ash, the ground should be 
a little darker. For light oak, more of the sienna will be required, 
while for chestnut a decidedly yellowish tone is wanted. Care 
must be taken not to make the grounds too dark. Rather in the 
other extreme, for the reason that there is a remedy for a too light 
ground, in the application of a greater quantity of graining color, 
as also in the glazing coat; while a ground too dark' cannot be 
made lighter. For dark oak, burnt Italian sienna with white will 
produce a far better ground than any other single color. The same 






UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 65 

caution must be observed, however, in obtaining this color as 
recommended in. the case of the raw Italian sienna. The domestic 
so-called siennas will not prove substitutes for the genuine Italian 
pigments. The ground for black walnut may be the same as for 
light oak with the addition of a little burnt sienna and black. 

Mixing Colors. — The primary colors are those that cannot 
be compounded from other colors, being pure in themselves; they 
are three in number — red, blue and yellow ;' and from these three 
all others are compounded. From each of the three primaries in 
combination with either of the others, is derived certain groups of 
colors, termed secondaries and tertiaries, with the variations of tints 
and shades. All of these are regularly classified, and their combi- 
nations may be learned according to rule, with great pleasure to 
the learner, and an almost limitless addition to his resources. A 
standard authority on these subjects is " Chevreul on Color," which 
may be obtained at any book store. The combinations named 
below will enable the painter to mix many colors that he may 
require. . . 

Cream Color. — Chrome yellow, the best Venetian red, and white 
lead. 

Pearl-Grey. — White lead with equal portions of Prussian blue 
and lampblack. The blue must be used very cautiously, as it is a 
powerful color. 

Fawn Color. — Burnt sienna, ground very fine, mixed with white 
lead. 

Fawn Color. — White lead, stone ochre, and vermilion. 

Bicff. — This is a mixture of pale chrome yellow and white lead, 
tinged with a little Venetian red. 

Straw. — A mixture of pale chrome yellow and white lead. 

Drab. — Raw or burnt umber and white lead, with a little Vene- 
tian red. 

Drab. — White lead with a little Prussian blue and yellow ochre. 

Drab. — White lead with a little yellow ochre and lampblack. 

ZVv?/5.— White lead with a little chrome green. 

Purple. — "White lead, Prussian blue, and vermilion. 



66 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

Purple. — Prussian blue, vermilion, and rose madder or crimson 
lake. 

Violet. — Vermilion, French ultramarine, a small portion of black, 
and white lead. 

French Grey. — White lead and Prussian blue, tinged with ver- 
milion ; and for the last coat, if cost is no object, substitute rose 
madder or lake for vermilion. 

Silver. — White lead, indigo, and a small portion of black, as the 
shade may require. 

Dark Chestnut. — Mix light red and black. Use red ochre when 
required to lighten the color. 

Salmon. — White lead tinged with the best Venetian red. 

Peach Blossom. — White lead tinged with orpiment. 

Lead. — This is a mixture of vegetable black and white lead. 

Dark Lead Color. — White, black, and indigo. 

Chocolate. — Vegetable black and Venetian red. 

Light Yellow. — Lemon yellow and white lead. 

Light Yellow. — Chrome yellow, white lead, and red lead. 

Light Yellow. — Raw sienna mixed with white lead. If the color 
is required of a warmer cast, add a little burnt sienna. 

Stone Color. — Yellow ochre, burnt umber, and white lead. 

Stone Color. — Raw sienna, burnt umber, and white lead. 

Stone Color. — White lead, burnt umber, yellow ochre, and a little 
Venetian red. 

Olive Green. — Prussian blue, chrome yellow, and burnt um- 
ber. 

Olive Green. — Vegetable black, chrome yellow, and a small 
portion of burnt umber. 

Grass Green. — Several shades of grass green may be made by 
mixing Prussian blue and chrome yellow. 

Carnation. — Lake and white lead. 

Lmitation of Old Gold. — Mix white lead, chrome yellow, and 
burnt sienna, until the proper shade is obtained. 

Colors for Outlines of Ornaments.— in decorative 
designs into which different colors enter, attention to the following 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 67 

rules will greatly increase the beauty of the work ; the rules are 
based on scientific principles. 

First : Any color on a gold back-ground should be outlined 
with a darker shade of its own color. 

Second: A gold ornament on a colored back-ground may always 
be outlined with black, provided the back-ground is not too dark ; 
in that case outline with a light color. 

Third: A colored ornament on a ground of complementary 
color should be outlined with a lighter tint of its own color, or a 
neutral color. 

Fourth : If the ornament and ground are in shades of the same 
color, and the ornament is darker than the ground, the outline 
should be still darker; if the ornament is lighter than the ground, 
no outline is required. 

Tones. — Often called shades, signify colors mixed with either 
white or black. 

Tints are colors mixed with white. 

Shades are colors mixed with black. 

Tempera is a mixture of powdered colors with gum- water. 

Distemper is a mixture of powdered colors with size. 

Color Harmony in Grained Work.— it is unques- 
tionably essential that every painter should know what plain colors 
and tints may be used in harmonious contrasts or combinations 
with the various painted imitations of fancy woods. Green is en- 
tirely unobjectionable ; indeed, it forms a pleasing contrast with 

i light oak, satinwood, bird's r eye maple, chestnut and ash — but dis- 
cords with mahogany, black walnut and rosewood. Blue is en- 
tirely harmonious with all these latter. Black harmonizes with all 
the woods, as does white; but white with the lighter colored ones 
is feeble and wanting. All the woods harmonize with each other 
except black walnut with mahogany and rosewood. Gold is good 
with all, but the contrast with the light colored ones is not so bril- 
liant as with the dark-toned woods. The bright colors in these 

.deaden the usually dull tones of the black walnut and detract from 



68 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

it thereby ; whereas the contrast with the latter-named wood, with 
the light colored ones, improves and brightens all the contrasting 
tints and shades. Light and dark oak are best shown by them- 
selves in contrast with each other, being too coarse in the grain to 
exhibit with good effect in combination with maple and satin- 
wood. In color harmony, generally, white and black harmonize 
with all colors but green. Gold is good with every color, shade 
and tint, but especially rieh with green, black, purple, carmine 
and blue. 

Chinese "White. — The following is recommended as the 
best way to prepare Chinese white : — Dissolve as much Roman 
alum in as small a quantity of hot water as is barely sufficient, and 
then mix it with two ounces and a half of honey. Set this mixture 
to evaporate to dryness in an earthen vessel, over a gentle fire. It 
will then appear like a spongy sort of coal, which being removed 
from the fire, must be pounded, and the powder placed in shallow 
crucibles or cupels, so that it may lie very- thinly on them. Expose 
these to a strong red heat for an hour ; after this, the powder must 
be pounded again, and being replaced in the cupels it must be 
exposed anew to a strong heat, and to a free current of air for an 
hour longer. Being then removed from the fire, it is reduced upon 
a porphyry slab to an exceedingly fine powder of an intense 
whiteness. It may be mixed with gum-water, in the same manner 
as other paints are usually treated, and it is not apt, like white lead, 
to turn to a dusty hue. 

Mixing White Lead. — To mix the white lead it should 
be placed in a can or pot, and an admixture of oil and turpentine 
being at hand, a small quantity should be poured over the white 
lead, and the whole stirred about with a stiff palette-knife or a 
stopping-knife, till the dilutent has become thoroughly incorporated 
with the white lead. 

The mixture may now be stained to the required tint. For this 
purpose the staining color should be ground in oil, and added cau- 
tiously to the diluted white lead, some colors staining much more 
powerfully than others. The staining color should never be added 
in a powdered or dry state. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 69 

Varnish Green, for Venetian Blinds, etc.— The 

work must first be painted once or twice with a light lead color ; 
when hard, grind some dry white lead in spirits of turpentine ; after- 
wards take about one-third in bulk in verdigris, or navy green, 
which has been ground stiff in oil; then mix them both together, 
and add a little common oak varnish, sufficient only to bind the 
color. When this has been applied it will become hard in about 
fifteen minutes. Add more varnish to give a good gloss. Then 
go over the work a second time, and, if required, a third time. 
Thus you will have a beautiful green, with a high polish. It pos- 
sesses a very drying quality, enabling the work to be completed in 
a few hours. The tint may be varied according to taste, by sub- 
stituting different greens; and if a bright grass-green is required, 
add a little Dutch pink to the mixture. This color is best used 
warm, as it gives the varnish a uniform appearance. 

VARNISHES. 

Varnishes are solutions of the various resins, commonly 
called gums, in either oil, turpentine, or alcohol. The gums prin- 
cipally applied are amber, anime, copal, lac, sandarac, mastic, 
damar and common resin. The varnishes are all applied to the 
surfaces of the woods, metals, or other materials, while in the fluid 
state, and the solvent is afterwards evaporated, leaving a thin glossy 
coat of the different resins as a defence from the action of the at- 
mosphere, or from slight friction. 

Sometimes the resins are used separately ; at other times two or 
more are combined according to the qualities required in the 
varnish. 

The Gums and their Qualities.— Amber.— The 

durability of the varnishes is of course mainly dependent upon 
the comparative insolubility of the resins; their hardness, tough- 
ness, and permanence of color. In these respects amber excels 
all other resins used for varnishes ; it resists the action of all 
ordinary solvents, and can only be dissolved for making varnish 
by fusion at a high temperature ; it is hard and moderately 



>]0 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CAEINET-MAKERS, 

tough, and its color is but little influenced by the atmosphere; 
but, unless very carefully selected, it is too yellow for delicate 
works of light colors. Amber is, however, but little used in 
making varnishes, principally on account of its high price, but 
partly because the varnish dries slowly, and does not attain its full 
hardness for many weeks. 

Anime is nearly as insoluble and hard as amber, and the best 
is of a very pale color; but it is not nearly so tough as amber. 
The varnishes made from anime dry quickly, but are very liable to 
crack, and the color becomes deeper by exposure to light and air. 
Anime is, however, extensively used in making oil varnishes, anil 
most of those called copal varnishes contain a considerable propor- 
tion of anime, which is substituted principally on account of its 
quick drying qualities. 

Copal is next in durability to amber; when very carefully 
selected it is almost colorless, and becomes rather lighter by ex- 
posure ; it is more easily dissolved by heat than either amber or 
anime, and although softer than these resins, is too hard to be 
scratched by the nail. Copal is, therefore, a most excellent ma- 
terial for varnish, and numerous attempts have been made to em- 
ploy it as the basis of a spirit varnish, but hitherto with only partial 
success. Pure alcohol has little effect on copal ; with the addition 
of a small quantity of camphor, the greater portion of the copal is 
dissolved, but the camphor impairs the durability of the varnish. 
Copal may be perfectly dissolved by ether, but this spirit evapo- 
rates too rapidly to allow of the varnish being uniformly applied. 
The essential oils of spruce and lavender have been occasionally 
employed as solvents of copal, but not with sufficient success to 
warrant its general adoption in spirit varnishes. 

Oil Varnishes. — Amber, anime, and copal are usually dis- 
solved for making varnish by fusing the gum, and adding linseed- 
oil heated nearly to the boiling point. They are then amalgamated 
by stirring and boiling, and the varnish is reduced to the required 
degree of fluidity by the addition of oil of turpentine. They con- 
stitute the more important of what are called oil varnishes, are the 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. J I 

most durable of all, possess considerable brilliancy, and are suf- 
ficiently bard to bear polishing. They are therefore employed for 
works of the best quality, that are exposed to the weather or to 
much friction ; as coaches, house decorations, and japanning. 

Spirit Varnishes. — Lac and sandarac are more soluble 
than the above resins, and are generally dissolved in spirits of 
wine; bit sometimes the pyroligneous spirit, commonly known as 
vegetable naptha, is employed as a cheaper substitute. These 
resins constitute the basis of what are called spirit varnishes, and 
are employed principally for delicate objects not exposed to the 
weather, such as cabinet and painted works. 

Lac is much harder and more durable than sandarac, and is 
the basis of most lackers for hard wood and metal, and also of 
French polish. Of the three varieties, stick-lac, seed-lac, and shell- 
lac, the latter is the most free from color, and the most soluble; it 
is therefore almost exclusively used in making varnishes and 
lacquers; but the palest shell-lac contains a considerable quantity of 
coloring matter, that renders it inadmissible for varnishing works 
of a light color. In addition, shell-lac also contains a small quan- 
tity of wax, and other matters, that are only imperfectly soluble in 
spirits of wine, and therefore give a cloudy appearance to the var- 
nish, but which is not of great importance in varnishing dark- 
colored works, and may be in great measure avoided by making 
the solution without heat, and allowing the more insoluble portions 
time to be precipitated. 

Sandarac is softer and less brilliant than shell-lac, but is 
much lighter in color; it is therefore used for making a pale var- 
nish for light-colored woods, and other works for which the dark 
color of shell-lac would be unsuited. When hardness is of greater 
importance than paleness, a portion of shell-lac is added ; but when 
paleness and brilliancy are required, a small quantity of mastic is 
added. When the varnish- is required to be polished, Venice tur- 
pentine is added to give sufficient thickness or body. 

Mastic is softer than any of the resins previously mentioned, 
and is dissolved either in spirits of wine or oil of turpentine ; the 



72 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

latter is more generally used on account of its cheapness. , With 
either of these solvents mastic makes a varnish of a very pale color, 
that is brilliant, works easily, and flows better on the surface to 
which it is applied than most other varnishes. It is also tokrably 
flexible, and may be easily removed by friction with the hand ; it 
is therefore much used for varnishing paintings, and other delicate 
works. 

Dailiar is easily dissolved in oil of turpentine, and when care- 
fully selected is almost colorless; it makes a softer varnish than 
mastic. The two combined, however, form an almost colorless 
varnish, moderately hard and flexible, and well suited for maps and 
similar purposes. 

Common Resin is generally dissolved either in turpentine 
or linseed oil with heat. Varnish made with resin is hard and 
brittle, but brilliant, and is principally employed to make cheap 
varnishes for common purposes in house-painting, toys, and cabinet 
work. It is also added to other varnishes in order to improve their 
brilliancy, but it should be added in small quantities only, as a large 
proportion of resin renders the varnishes brittle. 

The Solvents. — Linseed-oil is extensively employed as a 
vehicle for the harder resins, to which it imparts softness and tough- 
ness, but causes the varnish to dry slowly ; and unless the oil is of 
the purest and palest quality, well clarified, and carefully combined 
with the resin, without excess of heat, it materially darkens the 
color of the varnish when first made, and it is also liable to become 
darker by age after it is applied. Linseed-oil intended for the best 
varnishes is clarified by gradually heating it in a copper pot, so as 
to bring it nearly to the boiling point in about two hours ; it is 
then skimmed and simmered for about three hours longer, when 
dried magnesia, in the proportion of about one-quarter of an ounce 
to every gallon of oil, is gradually introduced by stirring ; the oil is 
then boiled for about another hour, and afterwards suffered to cool 
very gradually. It is then removed into leaden or tin cisterns, and 
allowed to stand for at least three months, during which the mag- 
nesia combines with the impurities of the oil and carries them to 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 73 

the bottom, and the clarified oil is taken from the top of the cistern 
as it is required without disturbing the lower portion, and the set- 
tlings are reserved for black paint. A pale drying oil may also be 
made as above, by substituting for the magnesia white copperas 
and sugar of lead in the proportions of two ounces of each to every 
gallon of oil. 

Linseed-oil when rendered drying, by boiling and the addi- 
tion of litharge and red lead, is sometimes used alone as a cheap 
extempore varnish. In boiling linseed oil, it is heated gradually to 
bring it to the boiling point in about two hours; it is then skimmed, 
and well-dried litharge and red lead, in the proportion of about 
three ounces of each to every gallon of oil, are slowly sprinkled in, 
and the whole is boiled and gently stirred for about three hours, or 
until it ceases to throw up any scum, or emit much smoke. It is 
then frequently tested by dipping the end of a feather into it, and 
when the end of the feather is burned off, or curls up briskly, the 
oil is considered to be sufficiently boiled, and is allowed to cool 
very slowly, during which the principal portion of the driers settle 
to the bottom. The oil is afterwards deposited in leaden cisterns 
screened from the sun and air. When the oil is required to be as 
pale as possible, dried white lead, sugar of lead, and white cop- 
peras are employed instead of the litharge and red lead. 

Oil Of Turpentine is employed as a vehicle for most of 
the resins, the oil varnishes being generally thinned with hot oil 
of turpentine. Mastic, damar, and common resin are generally 
made into varnishes by dissolving them in oil of turpentine alone, 
either cold or with very moderate warmth. Varnishes made with 
turpentine only, dry quicker than those made with oil, and are 
paler colored, but not so tough and durable. Turpentine var- 
nishes hold an intermediate position between oil and spirit var- 
nishes, and are employed principally on account of their cheapness 
and flexibility. Turpentine varies considerably in quality, and is 
greatly improved by age; that intended for varnish should be of 
the best quality, clear and limpid, and be kept for many months, 
or even years, before it is used ; and when employed alone, as for 



74 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

mastic varnish, care should be taken that it is not passed through 
an oily measure, as is frequently the case in procuring small quan- 
tities. 

Alcohol, Or Spirits Of Wine, is employed for dissolv- 
ing sandarac and sheil-lac, to make the white and brown hard 
spirit varnishes, and lacquer for hard wood or brass, and also French 
polish. The varnishes made with alcohol dry much quicker, harder, 
and more brilliant than those made with turpentine; but if the 
spirit contains more than a minute proportion of water, it will 
scarcely dissolve the resins, and when the varnish is applied, a very 
slight degree of moisture in the atmosphere will cause the resins to 
be precipitated from the solution, giving the varnish a dull, cloudy, 
or milky appearance. It is therefore of the first importance, in 
making spirit varnishes, to procure the alcohol as pure as possible. 

Ordinary spirits of wine, however, always contains a consider- 
able proportion of water, and is commonly tested for varnish pur- 
poses by saturating a slip of writing-paper with the spirit, which is 
then ignited. If the flame of the spirit communicates to the paper, 
and the whole is burned, the spirit is considered to be sufficiently 
good ; but if, as frequently happens, the paper should be so far 
saturated with the water remaining from the evaporation of the 
spirit as to prevent its burning, the spirit is rejected as unfit for 
varnish purposes. 

Nearly pure alcohol may be obtained from ordinary spirits of 
wine, by adding about one-third its weight of well-dried carbonate 
of potash, agitating the bottle and then allowing it to stand for ten 
or twelve hours, during which time the potash will absorb much of 
the water from the spirit and fall to the bottom; the spirit may 
then be poured off, and fresh alkali added, and the process re- 
peated until the potash remains quite dry ; the alcohol is then to 
be freed from the small portion of potash which it holds in solution 
by distillation in a water-bath. 

Naphtha, or the spirit procured by distillation from pyrolig- 
neous acid, and commonly known as vegetable or wood naphtha, 
is frequently employed instead of spirits of wine for making cheap 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 75 

varnishes. It dissolves the resins more readily than ordinary 
spirit of wine, but the varnish is less brilliant, and the smell of 
the naphtha is very offensive. It is therefore never employed for 
the best works. 

Preparation of Oil Varnishes.— The preparation of 

oil varnishes requires the application of considerable heat, and 
owing to this and the highly inflammable nature of the materials, 
the process is attended with considerable risk of setting the build- 
ing on lire. The process, should, therefore, always be conducted 
in detached buildings constructed expressly for the purpose. Owing 
partly to the necessity for this precaution, and the circumstance 
that oil varnishes are greatly improved by being kept in leaden cis- 
terns for some months before they are used, the preparation of oil 
varnish is carried on almost exclusively as a separate manufacture, 
the details of which are greatly varied, and are mostly kept secret. 

The copper pot employed to make the varnish is called a gum- 
pot, and measures about two feet nine inches in height, and nine 
and a half inches diameter externally. The bottom is hammered 
out of a single piece of copper, and fashioned like a hat without a 
brim; it is about nine inches deep, and three-eighths of an inch in 
thickness. The upper part of the pot is formed as a cylinder, of 
sheet copper, about two feet two inches in height, and of sufficient 
diameter to slip about two inches over the upper edge of the bot- 
tom piece, to which it is firmly riveted. A wide flange of copper, 
to support the pot, is also fixed just beneath the lower edge of the 
cylinder, and a strong iron hoop is fixed a little above the line of 
the rivets, to serve for the attachment of the horizontal handle, 
which is made as a nearly straight rod, one inch square, flattened 
at the end, and two feet eight inches long. 

The stirrer is a copper rod about three-quarters of an inch di- 
ameter, and three feet six inches long, flattened at the one end to 
one and a half inch in breadth for about eight inches in length, and 
fitted at the opposite end with a short wooden handle. 

The ladle, which should contain about two quarts, is also of 
copper beaten out of the solid, and riveted to a handle of the same 



1$ , PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

metal, three feet six inches long, and fitted with a wooden handle 
like the stirrer. 

The copper jack, for pouring hot oil into the gum-pot, is made 
in the form of a pitcher, with a large handle and a wide spout ; it 
contains two gallons. The brass or copper sieve, for straining the 
varnish, is about nine inches diameter, and contains sixty meshes 
to the inch. The copper funnel, for straining the boiling varnish, 
is large enough to receive the sieve, and should be well made with 
lapped seams, as solder would be melted with the heat. 

The tin pouring-pot, to hold three gallons, is formed exactly like 
a garden watering-pot, only smaller at the spout, and without any 
rose. This is never to be used for any purpose except pouring oil 
of turpentine into the varnish. 

A small broom, termed a " swish," used for washing out the 
gum-pot every time after use, is made from cuttings of cane tied to 
a small handle like a hearth-broom ; the head is five inches long, 
and five inches round. This should be washed in turpentine, and 
kept very clean. 

A three-footed iron trevet, with a circular top, is employed to 
support the gum-pot. The feet of the trevet are about sixteen 
inches in height, and spread wider at the bottom than the top, 
which is made of such a size that the pot will fit easily into it, the 
flange resting on the top. 

An ash-bed should be prepared near the fire, upon which to 
place the gum-pot when the varnish is ready for mixing, or the 
heat is becoming too great. This is prepared by sifting some dry 
ashes through a fine sieve, to make a smooth layer about one and 
a half inch thick, and a little larger than the bottom of the gum- 
pot. 

Place the trevet in a hollow in a field, yard, garden, or out- 
house, where there can be no danger from fire ; raise a temporary 
fireplace round the trevet with loose bricks, after the same manner 
that plumbers make their furnaces; then make up a good fire with 
either coke, coal, or wood charcoal, which is far preferable; let 
the fire burn to a good strong heat, set on the gum-pot with three 
pounds of gum copal ; observe that if the fire surround the gum- 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 77 

pot any higher inside than the gum, it is in great danger of taking 
fire. As soon as the gum begins to fuse and steam, put in the 
copper stirrer, and keep cutting, dividing, and stirring the gum to 
assist its fusion ; and if it feels lumpy and not fluid, and rises to 
the middle of the pot, lift it from the fire and set it on the ash-bed, 
and keep stirring until it goes down (in the mean time let the fire 
be kept briskly up) ; then set on the gum- pot again, and keep 
stirring until the gum appears fluid like oil, which is to be known 
by lifting up the stirrer so far as to see the blade. Observe, that 
if the gum does not appear quite fluid as oil, carry it to the ash- 
bed whenever it rises to the middle of the pot, and stir it down 
again (keep up a brisk fire), put on the pot and keep stirring until 
the gum rises above the blade of the stirrer ; call out to the assist- 
ant " be ready! " He is then, with both hands, to lay hold of the 
copper-pouring jack, charged with (one gallon) clarified oil, and 
lean the spout about one inch and a half over the edge of the gum- 
pot. Let him keep himself firm, steady, and collected, and not 
flinch, spill, or pour the oil, which would perhaps set all on fire. 
Observe, when the gum rises within five inches of the pot-mouth, 
call out, " pour ! " The assistant is then to pour in the oil very 
slowly until towards the last, the maker stirring during the pouring. 
If the fire at this time is strong and regular, in about eight or ten 
minutes the gum and oil will concentrate and become quite clear ; 
this is to be tested by taking a piece of broken window-glass in the 
left hand, and with the right lifting up the stirrer and dropping a 
portion of the varnish on it ; if it appears clear and transparent, the 
oil and gum are become concentrated or joined together. It is 
now to be further boiled until it will string between the finger and 
thumb; this is known by once every minute dropping a portion on 
the glass and taking a little between the forefinger and thumb. If 
it is boiled enough it will stick strong and string out into fine fila- 
ments, like bird-lime ; but when not boiled enough, it is soft, thick, 
and greasy without being stringy. The moment it is boiled enough, 
carry it from the fire to the ash-bed, where let it remain from fifteen 
to twenty minutes, or until it is cold enough to be mixed ; have at 
hand a sufficient quantity of oil of turpentine to fill the pouring- 



78 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

pot (two gallons) ; begin and pour out with a small stream, gra- 
dually increasing it, and if the varnish rises rapidly in the pot, keep 
stirring it constantly at the surface with the stirrer to break the 
bubbles, taking care not to let the stirrer touch the bottom of the 
pot, for if it should, the oil of turpentine would be in part converted 
into vapor, and the varnish would run over the pot in a moment; 
therefore, during the mixing, keep constantly stirring as well as 
pouring in at the same time. Have also a copper ladle at hand, 
and if it should so far rise as to be unmanageable, let the assistant 
take the ladle and cool it down with it, lifting up one ladleful after 
another, and letting it fall into the pot. As soon as the varnish 
is mixed, put the varnish sieve in the copper funnel placed in the 
carrying tin, and strain the varnish immediately ; empty it into 
open-mouthed jars, tins, or cisterns, there let it remain and settle, 
and the longer it remains the better it will become. Recollect 
when it is taken out, not to disturb or raise up the bottoms. 

Instead of the ash-bed, a circle of loose bricks four courses high 
may be erected to support the gum-pot. The bricks are to be laid 
so that when the gum-pot is set within, it will rest securely by its 
flange with the bottom about six inches from the ground. Upon 
this brick-stand set the pot every time there is occasion to carry 
it from the fire. Near the stand an iron trevet may be placed, 
upon which to turn the gum-pot every time after it is washed out, 
as, by so doing, it will always be kept clean, and cool gradually, 
for by cooling rapidly copper oxidizes very quickly. Near the 
trevet have the swish broom and also a large wide tin jack or 
other vessel to receive the washings. Have also at hand a copper 
ladle, and a tin bottle with turpentine, for washing with when 
wanted. 

The moment the maker has emptied the gum-pot, throw into it 
half a gallon of turpentine, and with the swish immediately wash 
it from top to bottom, and instantly empty it into the tin jack. 
Afterwards, with a large piece of woollen rag dipped in pumice 
powder, wash and polish every part of the inside of the pot, per- 
forming the same operation on the ladle and stirrer; rinse them 
with the turpentine washings, and at last rinse them altogether 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 79 

with clean turpentine, which also put to the washings, wipe dry, 
with a clean soft rag, the pot, ladle, stirrer, and funnel, and lay the 
sieve so as to be completely covered with turpentine, which will 
always keep it from gumming up. 

Eight pounds of copal takes in general from sixteen to twenty 
minutes in fusing, from the beginning till it gets clear like oil; but 
the time depends very much on the heat of the fire and the atten- 
tion of the operator. During the first twelve minutes while the 
gum is fusing the assistant must look to the oil, which is to be 
heated at a separate fire in a copper pot, large enough to contain 
double the quantity required. The oil should be brought to a 
smart simmer, for it ought neither to be too hot nor too cold, but 
in appearance beginning to boil, which the assistant is strictly to 
observe ; and, when ready, call to the maker ; then immediately 
each take hold of one handle of the boiling-pot and carry it to the 
ash-bed, the maker instantly returning to the gum-pot, while the 
assistant ladles the hot oil into the copper-pouring jack, bringing 
it and placing it at the back of the gum-pot until wanted. 

A thick piece of old carpet, free from holes, should be kept at 
hand in case the gum-pot should take fire ; should this happen, 
let the assistant throw the piece of carpet quickly over the blazing 
pot, holding it down all round the edges; and in a few minutes the 
fire will be smothered. 

After the oil has been mixed with the gum, a brisk strong fire 
should be kept up, until a scum or froth rises and covers all the 
surface of the contents, when it will begin to rise rapidly. Observe 
when it rises about two-thirds the height of the pot, carry it from 
the fire, and set it on the ash-bed, or brick-stand, stir it down 
again; and if driers are to be added, scatter in a few by a little at 
a time; keep stirring, and if the frothy head goes down, put the 
pot on the fire, and introduce gradually the remainder of the 
driers, always carrying the pot to the ash-bed when the froth rises 
about two-thirds the height of the pot. In general, if the fire be 
good, all the time a pot requires to boil from the time of the oil 
being poured in, is about three and a half or four hours ; but time 
js no criterion for a beginner to judge by, as it may vary according 



80 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

to the weather, the quality of the ingredients, or the heat of the 
fire ; therefore, about the third hour of boiling, try it on a bit of 
glass, and keep boiling it until it feels strong and stringy between 
the fingers, as before mentioned. 

The foregoing directions are, with very little differences, to be 
observed in making all sorts of copal varnishes, excepting the 
quantities of oil, gum, etc., a few of which will be now added. 

Copal Varnish for Fine Paintings, etc.— Fuse 

eight pounds of the very cleanest pale African gum copal, and, 
when completely run fluid, pour in two gallons of hot oil ; let it 
boil until it will string very strong; and in about fifteen minutes, or 
while it is yet very hot, pour in three gallons of turpentine, got 
from the top of a cistern. Perhaps during the mixing a consider- 
able quantity of the turpentine will escape, but the varnish will be 
so much the brighter, transparent, and fluid ; and will work freer, 
dry quickly, and be very solid and durable when dry. After the 
varnish has been strained, if it is found too thick, before it is quite 
cold, heat as much turpentine and mix with it as will bring it to a 
proper consistence. 

Artist's Virgin Copal. — From a select parcel of scraped 
African gum copal, before it is broken, pick out the very fine trans- 
parent pieces, which appear round and pale, like drops of crystal ; 
break these very small ; dry them in the sun, or by a very gentle 
fire. Afterwards, when cool, bruise or pound them into a coarse 
powder; then procure some broken bottles or flint-glass, and boil 
the same in soft water and soda; then bruise it into a coarse 
powder, like the gum ; boil it a second time, and strain the water 
from it, washing it with three or four waters, that it may be per- 
fectly clean and free from grease or any impurity ; dry it before 
the fire, or upon a plate set in an oven. When thoroughly dry, 
mix 2 lbs. of the powdered glass with 3 lbs. of the powdered copal ; 
after mixing them well, put them into the gum-pot, and fuse the 
gum ; keep stirring all the time ; the glass will prevent the gum 
from adhering together, so that a very moderate fire will cause the 
gum to fuse. When it appears sufficiently run, have ready three 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 8 1 

quarts of clarified oil, very'hot, to pour in. Afterwards, let it boil 
until it strings freely between the fingers. Begin and mix it rather 
hotter than if it were body varnish, for, as there is but a small 
quantity, it will be sooner cold; pour in 5 quarts of old turpentine, 
strain it immediately, and pour it into an open jar, or large glass 
bottle; expose it to the air and light, but keep it both from the 
sun and moisture until it is of a sufficient age for use. This is the 
finest copal varnish for fine paintings. 

Cabinet Varnish.. — Fuse seven pounds of very fine African 
gum-copal ; when well dissolved, pour in half a gallon of pale clari- 
fied oil; and when clear mix with it three gallons of turpentine; 
afterwards strain it, and put it aside for use. This if properly 
boiled, will dry in ten minutes; but if too strongly boiled, will not 
mix at all with the turpentine; and sometimes, when boiled with the 
turpentine will mix, and yet refuse to amalgamate with any other 
varnish less boiled than itself; therefore, it requires a nicety which 
is only to be learned from practice. This varnish is very apt to 
chill all other oil varnishes to which it may be added, and is prin- 
cipally employed as a quick drying varnish for the occasional use 
of japanners, cabinet, and coach-painters. Cabinet varnish is, 
however, more generally made with anime than copal. 

Best Body Copal Varnish for Polishing.— Fuse 

eight pounds of fine African gum-copal, add two gallons of clarified 
oil; boil it very slowly for four or five hours, until quite stringy, 
and mix it off with three and a half gallons of turpentine. 

The above varnishes being made of the finest copal without 
driers are the palest and best of the copal varnishes, possessing 
great fluidity and pliability, but they are rather slow in drying and 
retain for months so much softness that they will not polish well, 
until they give out a moisture and become hard ; after which they 
are very durable. When paleness is not of primary importance a 
second quality of gum is used, and when the varnish is required to 
'J dry quickly, sugar of lead or white copperas are introduced as 
driers, either singly or combined, in the proportion of from half a 
pound to one pound to each of the quantities above quoted, but 



82 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

driers are always injurious to the color, brilliancy, and durability of 
varnishes. When a varnish is required that will dry quick and 
hard without driers, gum anime is substituted for the copal, but it 
is less durable and becomes darker by age. Frequently, anime 
varnish is mixed with copal varnish by the maker while both are 
hot, in different proportions according to the quality required; one 
pot of the anime to two of copal being used for a moderately 
quick drying body-varnish of good quality; and two pots of anime 
to one of copal for a quicker drying body-varnish of common 
quality. 

Carriage Varnish, is made much the same as common 
body-varnish, except that to eight pounds of gum of second 
quality about two and a half gallons of oil and five and a half gal- 
lons of turpentine are used with driers. This varnish is boiled 
until very stringy, and is used for the wheels and under framework 
of coaches and other objects not requiring to be polished ; it is in- 
termediate in quality between body varnish and the following. 

WainSCOt Varnish consists of eight pounds of second 
quality gum anime, three gallons of clarified oil, one-quarter pound 
of litharge, one-quarter pound of dried sugar of lead, one-quarter 
pound of copperas, well boiled until it strings very strong, mixed 
with five and a half gallons of turpentine. This varnish dries 
quickly, and is principally used for house-painting and japanning. 
When a darker varnish is required, as for mahogany, a small por- 
tion of gold-size may be mixed with it. 

Pale Amber Varnish. — Fuse six pounds of fine-picked 
very pale transparent amber in the gum-pot, and pour in two gal- 
lons of hot clarified oil. Boil it until it strings very strong. Mix 
with four gallons of turpentine. This will be as fine as body copal, 
will work very free, and flow well upon any work it is applied to : 
it dries slowly, but becomes very hard, and is the most durable of! 
all varnishes. It is very excellent to mix in copal varnishes, tol 
give to them a hard and durable quality. Amber varnish is, how- 
ever, but <little used, on account of its expense. 

Jn making all the above varnishes, it should be observed thatj 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 83 

the more minutely the giim is fused, the greater the quantity and 
the stronger the produce. The more regular and longer the boil- 
ing of the oil and gum together is continued, the more fluid or 
free the varnish will extend on whatever it is applied. When the 
mixture of oil and gum is too suddenly brought to string by too 
strong a heat, the varnish requires more than its just proportion 
of turpentine to thin it, whereby its oily and gummy quality is re- 
duced, which renders it less durable; neither will it flow so well in 
laying on. The greater proportion of oil there is used in varnishes, 
the less they are liable to crack, because the tougher and softer 
they are. Increase the proportion of gum in varnishes, the thicker 
the stratum required, and the firmer they will set, and the quicker 
they will dry. 

All body varnishes, or those intended to be polished, should 
have one and a half pounds of gum to each gallon of varnish when 
it is strained off and cold. All carriage or wainscot varnishes or 
those not intended to be polished, should have full one pound of 
gum to each gallon. But the quantity of gum required to bring it 
to its proper consistence, depends very much upon the degree of 
boiling it has undergone; therefore, when the gum and oil have not 
been strongly boiled, the varnish requires less turpentine to thin it, 
and when boiled stronger than usual, a larger proportion of turpen- 
tine is required ; if the mixing of the varnish with the turpentine is 
commenced too soon, and the pot is not sufficiently cool, there 
may be considerable loss by evaporation. 

Copal varnishes should be made at least three months before 
they are required for use, and the longer they are kept the better 
they become; but when it is necessary to use the varnishes before 
they are of sufficient age, they should be left thicker than usual. 

Preparation of Spirit and Turpentine Var- 
nishes. — In the preparation of spirit and turpentine varnishes, 
scarcely any apparatus is required ; as, generally speaking, the pro- 
cess is almost limited to mixing the resins and solvent together, 
and agitating the whole until the resin is thoroughly dissolved. 
Heat is not generally necessary, and although frequently resorted 
to in order to facilitate the dissolution of the resins, in most in- 



84 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

stances only a moderate degree of warmth is required ; conse- 
sequently the preparation of spirit and turpentine varnishes is far 
more manageable than that of oil varnishes, and entails much less 
risk of accident. 

The resins should be thoroughly free from moisture, ami are 
generally broken into small pieces, in order that they may be dis- 
solved more quickly, and all impurities are carefully picked out; 
after which the finest and clearest pieces are generally selected and 
set aside for making small quantities of varnish of a superior 
quality. Sometimes, with the view of expediting the dissolution of 
the resins, they are finely powdered before they are added to the 
solvent ; but, in this case, it is necessary that the agitation should 
be maintained from the time the resin is added until it is thoroughly 
dissolved, otherwise it is liable to agglutinate into into one mass, 
that is afterwards very difficult of solution. 

In making turpentine varnishes without heat,, in quantities of 
ten or twelve gallons, the resin and turpentine are generally intro- 
duced into a large can with a wide mouth, and agitated by stirring 
with a stout stick ; a number of wooden pegs or nails are mostly 
driven into the stick, near the lower end, to increase its effect. 

Spirit varnishes are generally made in smaller quantities ; and, 
to prevent the evaporation of the spirit the mouth of the vessel is 
mostly closed and the vessel itself is agitated. In making quanti- 
ties of four to eight gallons, the resin and solvent are sometimes in- 
troduced into a small cask capable of containing about double the 
quantity, and mounted to revolve on central bearings at the ends. 
The cask is made to revolve either with continuous motion by a 
winch-handle, or with an alternating motion by means of a cord 
passed around the barrel and terminating in a cro'ss-bandle, which 
the operator pulls to give motion to the barrel in the one direction, 
and the momentum of which suffices to coil up the cord ready for 
the following pull, which causes the barrel to revolve in the oppo- 
site direction, and so on continually. 

Quantities of varnish not exceeding two or three gallons, are 
generally agitated in a tin can, rolled backwards and forwards 
upon a bench covered with an old carpet or a sack ; but whatever 






UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 85 

method is adopted for the agitation, it should be continued, with- 
out intermission, until the resin is sufficiently dissolved to prevent 
the risk of its becoming agglutinated; the time required for which 
depends upon the solubility of the resin and the strength of the 
spirit, but is commonly from three to four hours. The further agi- 
tation for the thorough solution of the resin may be either continu- 
ous or intermittent, according to convenience, but it should not be 
abandoned until the solution is perfect ; and when it is judged to 
be complete, the varnish is poured into another vessel for examina- 
tion ; and if any of the resin is not perfectly dissolved, the whole 
is returned to the vessel for further agitation. When the resin is all 
dissolved, the varnish is allowed to stand for a few hours, that any 
impurities may settle to the bottom, and the clear varnish is lastly 
strained through muslin or lawn into bottles, and allowed to stand 
for a few days before use. 

Very small quantities of varnish are generally made in glass 
bottles, large enough to contain about one-third more than the 
quantity introduced, and they are shaken up at frequent intervals ; 
but although-, from the small bulk of the resin, it cannot agglutin- 
ate into so insoluble a mass as when larger quantities are made, 
still, when the agitation is intermitted, several days are frequently 
required before the resins are entirely dissolved, as the solution de- 
pends more upon the amount of agitation than the length of time 
the resins are submitted to the action of the solvent. 

Sometimes, with the view of preventing the agglutination and 
facilitating the dissolution of the resins, coarsely-pounded glass is 
introduced with the resin and solvent; in this case the glass should 
be thoroughly washed and dried, and afterwards sifted, to exclude 
all the smaller particles, which, from their lightness, would have 
little effect in preventing the aggregation of the resin, and would 
be more troublesome to separate from the varnish. 

AVhen heat is employed in making spirit varnishes, the lowest 
temperature should be used that will suffice to dissolve the resins, 
as otherwise there is risk of losing a considerable portion of the 
alcohol by evaporation, thereby reducing the strength of the 
spirit; the varnish is also liable to be made of a darker color by 



86 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

excess of heat, and those containing shell-lac are less clear and 
hard when made with heat than when made quite cold, as the 
heated spirit dissolves the greater portion of the wax contained in 
the shell-lac, and which becomes disseminated throughout the 
mass; but when the solution is made without heat, the principal 
portion of the wax and other impurities remain undissolved at the 
bottom. 

In making large quantities of spirit varnish with heat, a still and 
worm are sometimes employed, in order to prevent loss by evapo- 
ration ; the still is heated by a steam or water-bath, and the resins 
and solvent are agitated by a stirring-rod passing through a stuff- 
ing-box in the head of the still. Quantities of two or three gallons 
are generally made in a tin can, which is dipped at frequent inter- 
vals into hot water, and agitated between every dip by rolling; but 
in this case it is necessary to loosen the cork every time it is im- 
mersed in the hot water, in order to allow the vapor of the spirit 
to escape; otherwise the cork would be driven out with great force, 
and some of the spirit might be thrown on the fire with great risk 
of serious accident. Glass bottles, although convenient from their 
transparency, should never be employed for making varnish with 
heat, as they are liable to break from the alternations of tempera- 
ture. They are, however, often used for making small quantities, 
and in this case the safer practice is to heat the water only in a 
moderate degree, and to allow of the continuous escape of the 
vapor through a small notch cut lengthwise in the cork, and which 
may be closed by the thumb when the bottle is shaken. There is, 
however, always some little risk of accident in making spirit var- 
nishes near an open fire, when much heat is employed ; and a 
water or sand-bath, placed on the top of a sto.ve, so as to be 
heated only in a moderate degree, will be generally found to afford 
sufficient warmth, and is, perhaps, the most safe and convenient 
arrangement for occasional purposes. 

Shell-lac never requires more than a very moderate warmth to 
dissolve it, and the solution is frequently made in stone bottles, 
placed near a fire and shaken occasionally. When it is re- 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 87 

quired to be very clear, as for metal lacquer, it should be passed 
through filtering-paper before it is bottled. 

It need scarcely be observed, that all the utensils employed in 
making spirit varnishes should be perfectly clean and dry, as the 
least moisture or even a damp atmosphere is liable to deteriorate 
the quality of the varnish. 

Best White Hard Spirit Varnish, to bear polishing, 

is made by adding two pounds of the best picked gum sandarac to 
one gallon of spirit of wine; they are then shaken up without in- 
termission for about four hours, or until the gum is quite dissolved; 
eighteen ounces of Venice turpentine is then moderately warmed, 
in a water-bath, to make it fluid, and poured into the varnish to 
give it a body ; the whole is then well agitated for about one hour, 
and afterwards strained and put into bottles, which should be kept 
well corked, to prevent the evaporation of the spirit; after stand- 
ing about a week, the varnish is fit for use. This varnish may be 
made sufficiently pale to be used on white work, when the clearest 
and palest pieces of the gum are carefully selected. When the 
work does not require to be polished, the proportion of Venice 
turpentine may be reduced one-half. 

White Hard Varnish is also made with three and a half 
pounds of gum sandarac to one gallon of spirit of wine, and when 
they are dissolved one pint of pale turpentine varnish is added, 
and the whole are well shaken until thoroughly mixed. Another 
white hard varnish is made with two pounds of gum sandarac, one 
pound of gum mastic, and one gallon of spirit of wine. 

White Spirit Varnish, for violins, is made with two 
pounds of mastic to one gallon of spirit of wine, and one pint of 
turpentine varnish. This may be made either in the same manner 
as the white hard varnish, or the ingredients may all be mixed 
together in a tin can, placed in a warm situation near a fire, and 
shaken occasionally until dissolved. 

Brown Hard Spirit Varnish is made in the same 

manner as white hard varnish, but shell-lac is generally used in- 
stead of sandarac. Thus a very excellent brown hard spirit var* 



88 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINF.T-MAKERS, 



nish that will bear polishing is made with two pounds of shell-lac 
to one gallon of spirit of wine ; and, after they are amalgamated, 
eighteen ounces of Venice turpentine are warmed and added, 
exactly as described for the best white hard varnish. Another very 
good brown hard spirit varnish consists of two pounds of shell-lac, 
one pound of sandarac, and two ounces of mastic dissolved in one 
gallon of spirit of wine. A lighter-colored varnish is made with 
two pounds of sandarac, one pound of shell lac, and one gallon of 
spirit. After the resins are dissolved, one pint of turpentine var- 
nish is added, and the whole is well mixed by agitation. 

Hard-WOOd Lacquer is made, like the brown hard var- 
nish, with two pounds of shell-lac to one gallon of spirit of wine, 
but without turpentine. Another hard-wood lacquer is made 
with one pound of seed-lac and one pound of white resin, dis- 
solved in one gallon of spirit of wine. 

French Polish is made in a great variety of ways ; but the 
simplest, and probably the best, consists of one and a half pound 
of shell-lac dissolved in one gallon of spirit of wine without heat. 
Copal, sandarac, mastic, and gum-Arabic, are frequently used in 
making French polish, partly with the view of making the polish 
of a lighter color, and partly to please the fancy of the polisher; 
the proportions of the different gums are varied almost infinitely, 
but with little advantage. A polish that is by some considered to 
be very good is made with twelve ounces of shell-lac, six ounces 
of gum-Arabic, and three ounces of copal to one gallon of spirit 
of wine. When a dark-colored polish is required, half a pound of 
benzoin is sometimes added to one pound of shell-lac dissolved in 
one gallon of spirit, or four ounces of guaiacum are added to one . 
and a half pound of shell-lac; at other times the polish is colored 
to the required tint with dragon's blood. 

The shell-lac alone makes the hardest and most durable polish, 
and it is a frequent practice to make the polish rather thicker in 
the first instance than it is required for use, as it may be readily 
thinned by the addition of spirit. But if it should be made too 
thin originally, it would require to be thickened by dissolving a 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 89 

further portion of shell-lac. With the view of avoiding any risk of 
the polish being made too thin in the first instance, the proportion 
of shell-lac is frequently made two pounds to the gallon of spirit. 
Other resins are sometimes added, with the view of making the 
polish tougher. Thus, sometimes, the polish is made with one and 
a half pound of shell-lac, four ounces of seed-lac, four ounces of 
sandarac, and two ounce of mastic to the gallon of spirit ; at other 
times the proportions are two pounds of shell-lac and four ounces 
of seed-lac to the gallon of spirit. 

Bleached Shellac. — When a lighter-colored lac varnish, or 
polish is required than can be made with the palest ordinary shell- 
lac, the bleached lac, sold under the name of white lac, may be 
employed with advantage. The varnish made with the white lac 
is at first almost colorless, but becomes darker by exposure to the 
light. 

Various modes have been adopted for bleaching lac varnish. 
One process is as follows : Six ounces of shell-lac, coarsely 
pounded, are to be dissolved by gentle heat in a pint of spirit of 
wine ; to this is to be added a bleaching liquor, made by dissolving 
purified carbonate of potash in water, and then impregnating it 
with chlorine gas till the silica precipitates, and the solution be- 
comes slightly colored. Of the above bleaching liquor add one or 
two ounces to the spirituous solution of lac, and stir the whole well 
together ; effervescence takes place, and, when this ceases, add 
more of the bleaching liquor, and thus proceed till the color of the 
mixture has become pale. A second bleaching liquid is now to be 
added, made by diluting muriatic acid with thrice its weight of 
water, and dropping into it pulverized red lead, till the last added 
portions do not become white. Of this acid bleaching liquor 
small quantities at a time are to be added to the half-bleached lac 
solution, allowing the effervescence, which takes place on each ad- 
dition, to cease before a fresh portion is poured in. This is to be 
continued till the lac, now white, separates from the liquor. The 
supernatant fluid is now to be poured away, and the lac is to be 
•Well washed in repeated waters, and finally wrung as dry as pos- 
sible in a cloth. 



90 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 



Another process : Dissolve five ounces of shell-lac in a quart o 
rectified spirit of wine ; boil for a few minutes with ten ounces o 
well-burned and recently-heated animal charcoal, when a small 
quantity of the solution should be drawn off and filtered ; if not 
colorless, a little more charcoal must be added. When all color 
is removed, press the liquor through silk, as linen absorbs more 
varnish, and afterwards filter it through fine blotting-paper. 

Dr. Hare's process, published in the Franklin jfoumal, is as fol- 
lows: Dissolve, in an iron kettle, one part of pearlash in eight 
parts of water; add one part of shell or seed-lac, and heat the 
whole to ebullition. When the lac is dissolved cool the solution, 
and impregnate it with chlorine gas till the lac is all precipitated. 
The precipitate is white, but the color deepens by washing and 
consolidation ; dissolved in alcohol, lac, bleached by the process 
above mentioned, yields a varnish which is as free from color as 
any copal varnish. 

A nearly colorless varnish may also be made by dissolving the 
lac, as in Dr. Hare's process ; bleaching it with a filtered solution 
of chloride of lime, and afterwards dissolving the lime from the 
precipitate, by the addition of muriatic acid. The precipitate is 
then to be well washed in several waters, dried, and dissolved in 
alcohol, which takes up the more soluble portion, forming a very 
pale but rather thin varnish, to which a small quantity of mastic 
may be added. 

Attempts are frequently made to combine copal with all the 
spirit varnishes, in order to give them greater toughness and dura- 
bility; and although copal cannot be entireiy dissolved, even in 
pure alcohol, still a moderate portion will be taken up by strong 
spirit of wine when a temperature of about 120 is employed with 
frequent agitation of the varnish. In this manner a light-colored 
varnish may be made with three-quarters of a pound of shell-lac, 
three-quarters of a pound of copal to one gallon of spirit of wine 
containing about ninety-five per cent, of alcohol. The copal 
should be powdered quite fine, and may either be added to the 
shell-lac and spirit at the commencement, in which case the shell- 
lac should also be powdered, or the shell-lac may be first dissolved 



II 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 9 1 

and the powdered copal added; but, in either case, it is only the 
more soluble portion of the copal that is taken up, and the re- 
mainder settles to the bottom to a viscid mass, from which the 
varnish may be decanted and strained for use. Copal may be 
added in the same manner to the white hard varnishes, and it is 
sometimes recommended to fuse the copal and drop it into water 
before attempting to dissolve it in spirit, but the advantage of 
adding copal to spirit varnishes is very questionable. 

Lacquer for Brass, like French polish, is made in a great 
variety of ways; and, as in French polish, the simplest and best 
pale lacquer for works that do not require to be colored, consists 
of shell-lac and spirit of wine only, in the proportions of about half 
a pound of the best pale shell-lac to one gallon of spirit. Lacquer 
is required to be as clear and bright as possible ; it is, therefore, 
always made without heat by continuous agitation for five or six 
hours. The lacquer is then allowed to stand until the thicker por- 
tions are precipitated, when the clear lacquer is poured off, and if 
it should not be sufficiently clear, it is afterwards filtered through 
paper into a bottle, which should be kept closely corked and out 
of the influence of light, which would darken the color of the 
lacquer. This may, however, be easily prevented by pasting paper 
round the bottle. 

Colored Lacquers. — Lacquers are frequently required to 
be colored, either of yellow or red lints. For yellow tints, turmeric, 
cape aloes, saffron, or gamboge are employed ; and for red tints, 
annotto and dragon's-blood are used — the proportions being varied 
according to the color required. Thus, for a pale yellow, about 
one ounce of gamboge and two ounces of cape aloes are powdered 
and mixed with one pound of shell-lac. For a full yellow, half a 
pound of turmeric and two ounces of gamboge, and for a red 
lacquer, half a pound of dragon's-blood and one pound of annotto. 
The color is also modified by that of the lac employed, the best 
pale or orange shell-lac being used for light-colored lacquers, and 
dark-colored shell-lac or seed-lac is used for the darker tints. For 
pale lacquers, sandarac is sometimes used with the shell-lac. Thus 



92 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

a pale gold-colored lacquer is made with eight ounces of shell-lac, 
two ounces of sandarac, eight ounces of turmeric, two ounces of 
annotto, and a quarter of an ounce of dragon's-blood to one gallon 
of spirit of wine. 

The most convenient method, however, of coloring lacquers, is 
to make a saturated solution in spirit of wine of each of the color- 
ing matters, and to add the solutions in different proportion to the 
pale lacquer according to the tint required ; but the whole of the 
coloring matters are not generally used by the same makers, and 
solutions of turmeric, gamboge and dragon's-blood afford sufficient 
choice for ordinary purposes. The turmeric gives a greenish- 
yellow tint, and, with the addition of a little gamboge, is the color- 
ing matter employed in making the so-called green lacquer used 
for bronzed works. 

Another mode of making lacquer : Four ounces of shell-lac 
and a quarter of an ounce of gamboge are dissolved by agitation, 
without heat, in twenty-five ounces of pure pyro-acetic ether. The 
solution is allowed to stand until the gummy matters not taken up 
by the spirit subside; the clear liquor is then decanted, and when 
required for use is mixed with eight times its quantity of spirit of 
wine. In this case, the pyro-acetic ether is employed for dissolv- 
ing the sli ell-lac in order to prevent any but the purely resinous 
portions being taken up, which is almost certain to occur with 
ordinary spirit of wine, owing 'to the presence of water; but if the 
lacquer were made entirely with pyro-acetic ether, the latter would 
evaporate too rapidly to allow time for it to be equally applied. 

Mastic Varnish, for painting, and similar purposes, is some- 
times made in small quantities with spirit of wine; but, more 
generally, oil of turpentine is employed as the solvent, the propor- 
tion being about three pounds of mastic to the gallon of turpentine. 
For the best varnish, the mastic is carefully picked and dissolved 
by agitation without heat, exactly as for the best white hard var- 
nish ; after the mastic varnish has been strained it is poured into 
a bottle, which is loosely corked and exposed to the sun and air 
for a few weeks ; this causes a precipitation, from which the clear 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 93 

varnish may be poured off for use ; but the longer the varnish is 
kept the better it becomes. 

Mastic varnish works very freely, but it is liable to chill, and the 
surface frequently remains tacky for some time after the varnish is 
applied. To prevent the latter evil, it is recommended, before dis- 
solving the mastic, to bruise it slightly with a muller, and pick out 
all the pieces that are too soft to break readily, and which may be 
used for common varnish. To prevent the chilling, which arises 
from the presence of moisture, Mr. W. Neil recommends a 
quart of river sand to be boiled with two ounces of pearl-ash ; the 
sand is afterwards to be washed three or four times with hot water, 
and strained each time. The sand is then to be dried in an oven, 
and when it is of a good heat, half a pint of the hot sand is to be 
poured into each gallon of varnish, and shaken well for five min- 
utes ; it is then allowed to settle, and carries down the moisture of 
the gum and turpentine. 

In making common varnish, heat is generally employed to dis- 
solve the mastic, and about one pint of turpentine varnish is added 
to every gallon of varnish. 

Turpentine Varnish is made with four pounds of com- 
mon resin dirsolved in one gallon of oil of turpentine. It requires 
no other preparation than sufficient warmth to dissolve the resin. 
Sometimes resin and turpentine are mixed together in a stone or 
tin bottle, which is placed near the fire, or in a sand-bath over a 
stove, and shaken occasionally; but varnish-makers generally mix 
the resin and turpentine in the gum-pot, and employ sufficient heat 
to fuse the resin. This is a more expeditious practice, but is at- 
tended with some danger of fire. When a very pale turpentine 
varnish is required, bleached resin is used, and care is taken not to 
employ more heat than is necessary in making the varnish. Tur- 
pentine varnish is principally used for in-door painted works and 
common painted furniture and toys. It is also frequently added 
to other varnishes to give them greater body, hardness, and bril- 
liancy. 

Crystal Varnish is a name frequently given to very pale 
varnishes employed for paper works — Such as maps, colored paints. 



94 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

and drawings. A very good crystal varnish is made with two 
pounds of mastic and two pounds of damar, dissolved without 
heat in one gallon of turpentine. Another good but more ex- 
pensive crystal varnish is made with equal quantities of Canada 
balsam and oil of turpentine. In making this varnish, it is only 
necessary to warm the Canada balsam until it is quite fluid, then 
add the turpentine and shake the mixture for a few minutes until 
the two are thoroughly incorporated. The varnish may then be 
placed in a moderately warm situation for a few hours, and will be 
ready for use on the following day. These crystal varnishes are 
both nearly colorless, flow freely, and are more flexible, so as to 
bear bending or rolling, and either. of them may be employed to 
make a tracing paper of middling quality, by applying a thin coat 
of varnish on one or both sides of any thin transparent paper, such 
as good tissue or foreign post-paper. 

Paper Varnish, for paper-hangings and similar purposes, 
is made with four pounds of damar to one gallon of turpentine. 
The damar dissolves very readily in the turpentine, either with 
moderate agitation or a very gentle heat. Sometimes white or 
bleached resin is used instead of the damar, or the two are com- 
bined. 

Water Varnish. — All the varieties of lac may be dissolved 
in nearly boiling water by the addition of ammonia, borax, potash, 
or soda, but these alkalies all have the effect of rendering the color 
of the lac much darker. The solutions may, however, be employed 
as varnishes, which, when dried, will resist the application of water 
sufficiently well to bear washing, especially when the proportion of 
alkali employed is only just sufficient to cause the dissolution o 
the lac, and which is also desirable in order to keep the varnish as 
light-colored as possible. The least color is given with diluted 
water of ammonia, in the proportions of about sixteen ounces of 
ordinary water of ammonia to seven pints of water and two pounds 
of pale shell-lac, to which about four ounces of gum-Arabic may be 
added. Borax is, however, more generally used, and the propor- 
tions are then two pounds of shell-lac, six ounces of borax, and; 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 95 

four ounces of gum-Arabic to one gallon of water. When the var- 
nish is required to be as light colored as possible, white lac is em- 
ployed. 

Sealing- Wax Varnish, for coating parts of electrical 
machines, and similar purposes, is made by dissolving two and a 
half pounds of good red sealing-wax and one and a half pound of 
shell-lac in one gallon of spirit of wine. 

Slack Varnish may be made with three pounds of black 
sealing-wax and one pound of shell-lac to the gallon of spirit, or 
fine lampblack may be mixed with brown hard varnish or lacquer, 
according to the thickness required in the varnish. The interior 
of telescope tubes are frequently blackened with a dull varnish of 
this kind, made by mixing lampblack with rather thick brass 
lacquer, as little of the lampblack being employed as will serve to 
deaden the bright color of the lacquer. Mathematical instruments 
are sometimes blackened with a similar thin varnish, and the sur- 
face is afterwards brightened with one or two coats of lacquer ap- 
plied as usual. Ordinary lampblack, however, generally contains 
greasy impurities and moisture, which render it unfit for varnish 
purposes, and therefore the best kind should be employed, or the 
lampblack should be purified by ramming it hard into a close 
vessel, and afterwards subjecting it to a red heat. In the work- 
shop, when small quantities of lampblack are required, it is fre- 
quently made for the occasion, by placing a piece of sheet metal 
over the flame of an oil lamp. A black varnish, sometimes used 
for metal works, is made by fusing three pounds of Egyptian 
asphaltum, and, when well dissolved, half a pound of shell-lac and 
one gallon of turpentine are added. 

Varnish for Iron. — Take 2 lbs. pulverized gum asphaltum, 
■ % lb. gum benzoin, i gallon spirits of turpentine. To make this 
varnish quickly, keep in a warm place and shake often till it is dis- 
solved. Shade to suit with finely-ground ivory black. Apply 
with a brush. This varnish should be used on iron work exposed 
to the weather. It is also well adapted for inside work, such as 
ii iron furniture, where a handsome polish is desired. 



96 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKER'S, 

Varnish for Cane and Basket-Work.— Lac, pre- 
pared after the following recipe is used to cover split and colored 
cane: 2]/^, galls, of good linseed-oil are heated in a sand-bath, as 
long as a drop of it, poured on a cold stove, does not run when 
the stone is inclined, and when touched with the finger it feels 
thready. Then is added first in small portions, one pound fat 
copal varnish, and the vessel wherein the copal varnish is heated 
must be large, because by the addition of the linseed oil, a great 
deal of frothing takes place. When cold, the required consistence 
is given to the varnish by mixing it with turpentine-oil. It soon 
dries, preserves a sufficient elasticity, and may be applied with or 
without addition of colors. 



POLISH REVIVERS, ETC. 

French Polish Reviver. — >£ pint linseed-oil, i oz. 

spirits of camphor, 2 ozs. vinegar, ^ oz. butter of antimony, y± oz. 
of spirits of hartshorn. 

Another. — 1 lb. of naphtha, 4 oz. of shellac, y£ oz oxalic acid. 
Let it stand till dissolved, and add 3 ozs. linseed-oil. 

Fumitnre Reviver. — Pale linseed-oil, raw, 10 oz.; lac 
varnish and wood spirits, of each 5 ozs. Mix well before using. 

Furniture Cream. — i. Cut in small pieces a quarter of a 
pound of yellow wax, and, after melting it, add an ounce of well 
powdered colophony, which is a black resin or turpentine boiled 
in water, and afterwards dried. The wax and colophony be- 
ing both melted, pour in, by degrees, quite warm, two ounces of 
oil or spirit of turpentine. When the whole is thoroughly mixed, 
pour it into a tin or earthen pot, and keep it covered for use. 
The method of applying it to the furniture, which must be first 
well dusted and cleaned, is by spreading a little of this composi- 
tion on a piece of woollen cloth, and well rubbing the wood with 
it, and in a few days the gloss will be as firm and fast as varnish. 

2. J^ lb. of beeswax melted in an earthenware pot ; add grad- 
ually y 2 pint tnrpentine, colored with J^ oz. alkanet root ; add 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 97 

J/ 2 ' pt. linseed oil; mix well. Should be kept in wide-mouthed 
bottles for use. Note. — This cream should not be used on newly- 
polished furniture. 

Furniture Paste. — If it is required to keep the wood its 
natural color, scrape a quarter of a pound of beeswax into half a 
pint of turpentine. Linseed oil will darken the wood. 

Six ounces of pearlash in a quarter of a pound of white wax, and 
one quart of hot water; simmer for half an hour in a pipkin. 
When cool the wax will float on the top, which must be taken off, 
and with hot water worked into a paste. 

Equal parts of beeswax, spirit of turpentine, and linseed oil. 
Melt well together. 

Four ounces of beeswax, ten ounces of turpentine, alkanet root 
to color. Melt together and strain. 

To Make Furniture Paste.— Scrape two ounces of 

beeswax into a pot or basin ; then add as much spirits of turpen- 
tine as will moisten it through. At the same time, powder an 
eighth part of an ounce of resin, and add to it, when dissolved to the 
consistence of paste, as much Indian red as will bring it to a deep 
mahogany color. Stir it up, and it will be fit for use. 

Several Receipts for Furniture Cream.— Yellow 

wax, 4 oz.; yellow soap, 2 oz.; water, 50 oz.; boil, with constant 
I stirring, and add boiled oil and oil of turpentine, each 5 oz. 

Soft water, 1 gallon ; soap, 4 oz.; white wax, in shavings, 1 lb. 
Boil together, and add 2 oz. pearlash. To be diluted with water, 
laid on with a paint brush, and polished off with a hard brush or 
cloth. 

Wax, 3 oz.; pearlash, 2 oz.; water 6 oz. Heat together, and 
add 4 oz. boiled oil and 5 oz. of spirits of turpentine. 

Pearlash, 1 oz.; water, 8 oz.; beeswax (genuine) 6 oz.; mix with 
heat, and add sufficient water to reduce it to the consistency of 
.cream; for use add more water, and spread it on the wood with a 
painter's brush, let it dry, and polish with a hard brush or cloth. 

Beeswax, 3 oz.; -pearlash, 2 oz.; water, 6 oz.; mix with heat, and 
iiadd boiled oil, 4 oz.; turpentine (oil) 5 oz.; mix. 



98 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

White Furniture Cream. — With the following receipt 

the vinegar must be mixed with the linseed-oil by degrees, and the 
bottle well shaken up. The spirit of antimony must afterwards be 
added, and well mixed. Six ounces of raw linseed oil, three ozs. 
methylated spirit, three ozs. white wine vinegar, half an ounce of 
butter of antimony. 



GLUE. 

Glue. — Glue is prepared from waste pieces of skin, horns, hoofs, 
and other animal offal. These are steeped, washed, boiled, strained, 
melted, reboiled and cast into square cakes, which are then dried. 
The strongest kind of glue is made from the hides of oxen ; that 
from the bones and sinews is weaker. The older the animal die 
stronger the glue. Good glue should be hard in the cake, of a 
strong, dark color, almost transparent, free from black or cloudy 
spots, and with little or no smell. The best sorts are transparent 
and of a clear amber color. Inferior kinds are sometimes con- 
taminated with the lime used for removing the hair from the skins 
of which they are made. The best glue swells considerably (the 
more the better) when immersed in cold water, but does not dis- 
solve, and returns to its former size when dry. Inferior glue made 
from bones, will, however, dissolve almost entirely in cold water. 

To Prepare Glue. — To prepare glue for use it should be 
broken up into small pieces, and soaked in as much cold water as 
will cover it, for about twelve hours. It should then be melted in 
a double glue pot, covered to keep the glue from dirt. Care must 
be taken to keep the outer vessel full of water, so that the glue 
shall not burn, or be brought to a temperature higher than that of 
boiling water. The glue is allowed to simmer for two or three 
hours, then gradually melted, so much hot water being added as 
will make it liquid enough, just to run off a brush in a continuous 
stream, without breaking into drops. When the glue is done with, 
some boiling water should be added to make it very thin before it 
is put away. Freshly-made glue is stronger than that which has 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 99 

been repeatedly melted. Too large a quantity should not therefore 
be made at a time. Glue may be freed from the foreign animal 
matter generally in it by softening it in cold water, washing it with 
the same several times, till it no longer gives out any color, then 
bruising it with the hand, and suspending it in a linen bag beneath 
the surface of a large quantity of water at 66° Fahr. By doing 
this the pure glue is retained in the bag, and the soluble impurities 
pass through. If the softened glue be heated to 122 without 
water, and filtered, some other impurities will be retained by the 
filter, and a colorless solution of glue be obtained. 

The addition of a little bichromate of potash will render glue 
impervious to moisture after exposing to the light, and a small 
quantity of methylated spirits will greatly improve its keeping 
qualities. 

IHixing Glue. — A minimum amount of glue should be used 
in good work, and it should be applied as hot as possible. The 
surfaces of the wood to be united should be clean, dry, and true; 
they should be brought together as tightly as possible, so that the 
superfluous glue is squeezed out. The cohesion of a piece of solid 
glue, or the force required to separate one square inch, is four 
thousand pounds. The strength of common glue for coarse work 
is increased by the addition of a little powdered chalk. The hot- 
ter the glue the greater its cohesion ; therefore in all large and 
long joints the glue should be applied immediately after boiling. 
Glue loses much of its strength by frequent re-melting; that glue, 
therefore, which is newly made, is much preferable to that which 
has been re-boiled. 

Glue Pot. — A glue pot recently perfected consists of a cir-~ 
cular kerosene lamp, made of tin, resting upon a tin bottom Sj4 
inches in diameter. The lamp is fitted with a tin chimney in place 
of glass, and fitted with a small aperture, covered with mica, so as 
to see how to regulate the flame. The glue pot is made of cop- 
per, tinned on the inside and supported upon a rim setting up 
about six inches from the bottom of the lamp, the rim supported by 
three legs, soldered and riveted to the rim and bottom of lamp rest. 



IOO PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

The pot in which the bottom is placed has a portion of the bot- 
tom arched, to give more heating surface, and connecting with the 
chamber under the pot is a flue, passing out and up alongside of 
the pot, which carries off any smoke from the lamp, and also acts 
as a draft to the flame. This pot is five inches in diameter, and 
about six inches high. The pot for the reception of the glue is 
set in the same as an ordinary glue pot, and will hold about a 
quart of glue. The whole can be carred to any place where you 
wish to use it, and still have the heat kept up. The cost of oil is 
but a few cents a week. 

Auother improvement is in the pot being of copper, tinned. It 
will not corrode and spoil the glue, as is the case with iron. 

French cabinet-makers use a glue pot with an inside pan made 
of glazed earthenware and divided radially into three divisions, in 
one of which is kept strong glue, in another weaker, and in the 
third water only, with a brush or piece of sponge for cleaning off 
superfluous glue fiom the work. 

A few holes bored near the top of the inner vessel of a glue pot 
by admitting steam from the outer vessel will prevent the glue 
from solidifying on the side. They need not be bored round the 
whole circumference of the pot, to allow of pouring out the glue if 
necessary. 

TO Prevent Glue Cracking.— Glue frequently cracks 
because of the dryness of the air in rooms warmed by stoves. 
The addition of chloride of calcium to glue will prevent this disa- 
greeable property of cracking. Chloride of calcium is such a deli- 
quescent salt that it attracts enough moisture to prevent the glue 
from cracking. Glue thus prepared will adhere to glass, metal, etc., 
and can be used for putting on labels without danger of their drop- 
ping off. 

Strong Glue to Resist Moisture.— Dissolve gum- 

sandarac and mastic, of each a quarter of an ounce, in a quarter 
of a pint of spirits of wine, to which add a quarter of an ounce of 
clear turpentine ; now take strong glue, or that in which isinglass 
has been dissolved; then, putting the gums into a double glue-pot, 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 10 1 

add by degrees die glue, constantly stirring it over the fire till the 
whole is well incorporated; strain it through a cloth, and it is 
ready for use. You may now return it to the glue pot, and add 
half an ounce of very finely-powdered glass; use it quite hot. If 
you join two pieces of wood together with it, you may, when per- 
fectly hard and dry, immerse it in water, and the joint will not 
separate. 

Gltie to Resist Moisture. — To two quarts of skimmed 
milk add half a pound of the best glue ; melt them together, taking 
care they do not boil over, and you will have a very strong glue, 
which will resist damp or moisture. 

Portable Glue. — Boil one pound of the best glue, strain it 
very clear ; boil also four ounces of isinglass ; put it into a double 
glue-pot, with half a pound of fine brown sugar, and boil it pretty 
thick ; then pour it into plates or moulds. When cold you may 
cut and dry them for the pocket. 

This glue is very useful to draughtsmen, architects, etc., as it 
immediately dilutes in warm water, and fastens the paper without 
the process of dampening; or, it may be used by softening it in 
the mouth, and applying it to the paper. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 

To Raise Old Veneers. — First, wash the surface with 
boiling water, and, with a coarse cloth, remove dirt or grease ; 

. then place it before the fire, or heat it with a caul ; oil its surface 
with common linseed-oil, place it again to the fire, and the heat will 
make the oil penetrate quite through the veneer, and soften the 
glue underneath; then, while hot, raise the edge gently with a 
chisel, and it will separate completely from the ground; be careful 
not to use too great force, or the work will be spoiled. Again, if it 
should get cold during the operation, apply more oil, and heat it 
again. Repeat this process till the veneer is entirely separated, 

I then wash off the old glue and proceed to lay it again as a new 

'veneer. 



102 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CAJ3INF.T-MAkERS, 

To Take Out Bruises in Furniture.— Wet the part 

with warm water ; double a piece of brown paper five or six times, 
soak it, and lay it on the place; apply on that a hot flat-iron till 
the moisture is evaporated. If the bruise be not gone, repeat the 
process. After two or three applications, the dent or bruise will be 
raised level with the surface. If the bruise be small, merely soak 
it with warm water, and apply a red-hot poker very near the sur- 
face; keep it continually wet, and in a few minutes the bruise will 
disappear. 

To Make Paste for Laying Cloth or Leather.— 

To a pint of the best wheaten flour add resin, very finely pow- 
dered, about two large spoonfuls ; of alum, one spoonful, in powder ; 
mix them all well together, put them into a pan, and add by de- 
grees soft or rain water, carefully stirring it till it is of the con- 
sistence of thinnish cream ; put it into a saucepan over a clear 
fire, keeping it constantly stirred, that it may not get lumpy. 
When it is of a stiff consistence, so that the spoon will stand up- 
right in it, it is done enough. Be careful to stir it well from the 
bottom, for it will burn if not well attended to. Empty it out into 
a pan and cover it over till cold, to prevent a skin forming on the 
top, which would make it lumpy. 

This paste is very superior for the purpose, and adhesive. To 
use it for cloth or baize, spread the paste evenly and smoothly on 
the top of the table, and lay the cloth on it, pressing and smooth- 
ing it with a flat piece of wood; let it remain till dry; then trim 
the edges close to the cross-banding. If you cut it close at first, 
it will, in drying, shrink and look bad where it meets the banding 
all round. If used for leather, the leather must be first previously 
damped, and then the paste spread over it; then lay it on the 
table, and rub it smooth and level with a linen cloth, and cut the 
edges close to the banding with a short knife. Some lay their 
table cover with glue instead of paste, and for cloth perhaps it is 
the best method ; but for leather it is not proper, as glue is apt to 
run through. In using it for cloth, great care must be taken that 
the glue be not too thin, and that the cloth be well rubbed down 
with a thick piece of wood made hot at the fire, for the glue soon 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 103 

chills. By this method, the edges may be cut oft" close to the 
border at once. 

Cements for Stopping Flaws in Wood.— Put any 

quantity of fine sawdust of the same wood your work is made with 
into an earthen pan, and pour boiling water on it, stir it well, and 
let it remain for a week or ten days, occasionally stirring it; then 
boil it for some time, and it will be of the consistence of pulp or 
paste; put it into a coarse cloth, and squeeze all the moisture from 
it. Keep for use, and, when wanted, mix a sufficient quantity of 
thin glue to make it into a paste; rub it well into the cracks, or fill 
up the holes in your work with it. When quite hard and dry, 
clean your work off, and if carefully done, you will scarcely dis- 
cern the imperfection. 

Mahogany-Colored Cement.— Melt two ounces of 

beeswax and half an ounce of Indian red, and a small quantity of 
yellow ochre, to bring the cement to the desired color; keep it in 
a pipkin for use. 

Cement for Turners. — Melt together beeswax, one 
ounce; resin, half an ounce; and pitch, half an ounce; stir in the 
mixture some very fine brickdust to give it a body. If too soft, 
add more resin ; if too hard, more wax. When nearly cold, make 
it up into cakes or rolls, which keep for use. 

This will be found very useful for fastening any piece of wood 
on the chuck, which is done by applying the roller of cement to 
the chuck and it will adhere with sufficient force. 

Tracing Paper. — A good firm tissue paper washed with a 
mixture of six parts spirits of wine, one of resin, one of nut oil. 
Apply with a sponge. 

Another. — Canada balsam and turpentine, equal parts, will make 
i a- varnish which, if applied to one side of a good thin paper, will 
answer well. If it is meant to take watercolor, a coat of ox gall 
1 must be laid on. 

Another. — Dissolve a piece of white beeswax, about the size of a 
« walnut, in half a pint of spirits of turpentine; then, having pro- 
■: cured some very fine white, woven tissue-paper, lay it on a clean 



104 " PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

board, and, with a soft brush dipped in this liquid, go over one 
side, and then turn it over, and apply it to the other; hang it up 
in a place free from dust, to dry. It will be ready for use in a few 
days. Some add a small quantity of resin, or use resin instead of 
wax. 

Mounted Tracings. — Tightly strain across an old drawing- 
board, by means of tacks slightly driven, a piece of cotton of toler- 
ably good quality, but do not damp it, except with paste, as here- 
after mentioned. Work the last in well with a painter's brush that 
has not been used for any other purpose. It is advisable to soak 
the brush, before using, for a few hours in cold water, so as, by ex- 
pansion of the handle and constriction of the cordage, to tighten 
the hairs, and prevent them coming out with the paste. Paste also 
the back of the tracing, and, obtaining the assistance of another 
person, hold it by the corners over the strained fabric, allowing it 
to sag well, and lower it gently until the middle of the tracing first 
come into contact with the calico, after which gently and simulta- 
neously lay down each corner. The tracing may now be gently 
dabbed with a clean cloth, commencing at the middle, and work- 
ing out the blisters to the edge. A needle may sometimes be 
used with advantage to puncture small holes and set free the air in 
some of the obstinate blisters ; but do not trouble to remove them 
all, as the smaller ones will quite disappear in drying. Do not rub 
the tracing whilst wet without the intervention of a sheet of large 
thin lining paper, such as is used for lining walls. Allow the trac- 
ing to dry gradually on the board without fire heat, and do not 
remove it until thoroughly dry. Draw on the scale before mount- 
ing, so that it may, by contracting and expanding with the draw- 
ing, be always true. The tracing, when mounted, presents a better 
surface for coloring than before. The board should be cleaned 
before using. 

Cracks in Drawing Boards.— The material generally 
used in stopping the above is a composition made of glue and 
chalk, worked up to the consistency of putty, and applied to the 
board in a soft state, allowed to dry, and smoothed off with sand- 
paper. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 105- 

To Temper Tools. — The quality of the steel should be 
uniform throughout ; indeed, it is always better to have them tem- 
pered rather too hard than soft, for use will reduce the temper. If 
at any time it is necessrry to perform the operation yourself, the 
best method is to melt a sufficient quantity of lead to immerse the 
cutting part of the tool in. Having previously brightened its sur- 
face, plunge it into the melted lead for a few minutes, till it gets 
sufficiently hot to melt a candle, with which rub its surface ; then 
plunge it in again, and keep it there till the steel assumes a straw 
color; but be careful not to let it turn blue. When that is the 
case, take it out, rub it again with the tallow, and let jt cool. If 
it should be too soft, wipe the grease off, repeat the process with- 
out the tallow; and, when it is sufficiently hot, plunge it into cold 
spring-water, or water and vinegar mixed. By a proper attention 
to these directions, and a little practice, every workman will have 
it in his power to give a proper temper to the tools he may use. 
If a saw is too hard, it may be tempered by the same means; but 
as it would be not only expensive, but in many cases impossible to 
do it at home, a plumber's shop is mostly at hand, where the pro- 
cess may be repeated when they are melting a pot of lead. But 
here observe that the temper necessary is different to other cutting 
tools ; you must wait till the steel just begins to turn blue, which is 
a temper that will give it more elasticity, and, at the same time, 
sufficient hardness. 

Hardening Tools. — A communication to the English Me- 
chanic says : '< Mercury is the best liquid for hardening steel 
cutting tools. The best steel, when forged into shape and hard- 
ened in mercury, will cut almost anything. I have seen articles 
made from ordinary steel which have been hardened and tempered 
to a deep straw color, turned with comparative ease with cutting 
tools from good tool steel, hardened in mercury." 

To Cut Good Steel Scrapers.— Part of the blade of a 
broken saw makes the best scrapers ; but, as it is hard, it is very 
difficult to cut it into the required form. The best and most ex- 
peditious way is to mark it out to the size wanted, and then to 
place the blade or steel plate in a vise whose chaps shut very close, 



Io6 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

placing the mark even with the face of the vise, and the part to be 
cut to waste above the vise. Then with a cold-chisel, or a com- 
mon steel-firmer that has its basil broken off, holding it close to the 
vise and rather inclined upwards, begin at one end of the steel 
plate, and with a sharp blow of the hammer it will cut it. Keep 
going on by degrees, and you will with ease cut it to the shape re- 
quired; then grind the edges of your scraper level, and finish by 
rubbing it on your Turkey-stone. 

To Remedy Splits in Circular Saws.— Three 

methods : 

Drill a small hole in the saw at the bottom of the split. 

Drill six holes about ^ inch in diameter, along the line of the 
crack, taking care that one of them falls just inside it; countersink 
the five outer holes on both sides, and rivet nicely up with hot 
rivets slightly less in diameter than the holes. 

Cut a series of dovetails across the split, and insert therein cop- 
per dove-tails, which must be riveted tight by hammering on each 
side. The edges of the holes must be filed to an acute angle 
from each side of the saw, half the thickness of it, and the copper 
dove-tail pieces must not be quite long enough to fill the hole, but 
must fit in width exactly, and of course must be well annealed, 
and considerably thicker than the saw. When riveted, file off level 
with saw. 

Brazing Band-SaWS.— Good brass, rich in copper, is 
generally used. Bring the two ends of the saw close together and 
fasten, then take a small pan of charcoal, and place it under the 
ends, and direct the flame of a blowpipe on it. As the ends will 
soon become red hot, sprinkle some powdered borax upon them, 
and add the solder with a piece of iron. The way to make the 
solder melt: cast in ingot and file away ; collect the filings, and 
put into solution ot sal ammoniac in water, and so keep until 
wanted. 

Saw Sharpening. — To sharpen the saw, take a triangular 
file, three-square file it is called, the handle in the right hand, the 
point of the file between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 107 

apply it to the front of the first tooth that leans away from the 
operator. Let the point of the file incline towards the point of 
the saw, give three or four or more rubs of the file, and the point 
of the tooth will be sharpened, and the front brought to a sharp 
edge, and as the file will have passed over the top of the next 
tooth it also will be filed down, and the point partly sharpened. 

Now apply the file to the front of this tooth ; it leans to- 
wards the operator, so the point of the file must incline towards 
the handle of the saw. Give, as before, three or four rubs, accord- 
ing to the state of the saw, and the point of this tooth will also be 
sharpened, and its front brought to a sharp cutting edge. Go on 
in this way alternately, always remembering" that when the tooth 
leans away from the operator the point of the file must incline to 
the point of the saw, and when the tooth leans towards the opera- 
tor, then it must incline towards the handle of the saw. 

If the saw has been sharpened before, it will be advisable to first 
run the file along the top of the teeth, to bring them all to a level. 

Oiling Tools. — An English authority says: When a set of 
bench-planes is French-polished, they certainly look very well on 
the bench for a short time, but the French-polish does not add to 
their durability or usefulness, and, I think, gives them anything 
but a workmanlike appearance. My plan is to knock the irons 
out, weigh them, and then drop them into the linseed-oil barrel, 
and let them stay there a week ; I then take and weigh them 
again to ascertain how much oil they have absorbed. The oil 
goes right to the heart of the planes, and as it sets it makes them 
hard, and they may be depended upon for keeping their shape. 
Rubbing them over every dinner hour for a week or two will give 
them a beautiful surface, and they will not show scratches or dents 
as they would if they were French-polished. 

TO Mark Tools. — Coat over the tools with a thin layer of 
wax or hard tallow, by first warming the steel and rubbing on the 
wax; warm until it flows and let it cool. When hard, mark the 
name through the wax with a graver and apply some aquafortis 
(nitric acid); after a few moments wash off the acid thoroughly 



108 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

with water, warm the metal enough to melt the wax, and wipe it 
off with a soft rag. The letters will be found etched into the steel. 

Varnish for Tools. — Take 2 oz. tallow, 1 oz. resin ; melt 
together and strain, while hot, to remove the specks which are in 
the resin. Apply a slight coat on the tools with a brush, and it 
will keep off the rust for any length of time. 

Boiler Incrustation. — The following remedies have been 
used, with varying success, to prevent the incrustation of boilers. 

1. Potatoes, in weight one-fiftieth part that of the water, pre- 
vents the adherence of scale. 

2. 12 parts of salt, 2^ parts of caustic soda, y% part of extract 
of bark, ]4 part of potash. 

3. Pieces of oak-wood suspended in the boiler and renewed 
monthly. 

4. 2 ounces of muriate of ammonia in the boiler twice a week. 

5. A coating, consisting of 3 parts of black-lead and 18 parts of 
tallow, applied hot to the inside of the boiler every few weeks. 

6. 12^ lbs. of molasses, fed into an 8-horse boiler at intervals, 
prevented incrustation for six months. 

7. Mahogany or oak saw-dust in small quantities. Use this 
with caution, as the tannic acid attracts iron. 

8. Carbonate of soda. 

Non-Conducting Covering for Steam Pipes.— 

Sawdust mixed with flour and water into a thick paste is a non- 
conducting covering for steam pipes, cylinders, etc. The flour 
should be made into a vtry thin paste, and then the sawdust is 
stirred in. The adhesion of this composition is very great when 
applied on clean surfaces of wrought or cast iron ; but on copper 
pipes it is necessary to wash them first with a clay-wash, made 
with potter's clay, until it forms a thin coating, after which the 
sawdust and paste will adhere firmly. It is very simple to apply ; 
a small trowel is all that is necessary. Lay on five successive 
coats one-fifth of an inch thick. Let the pipes or other objects to 
be covered be kept warm by the aid of a little steam, and let one 
coat be perfectly dry before applying a second. Should the pipes 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. I Og 

be outside, exposed to the open air, give them three or four coats 
of coal tar to make them waterproof, but if inside a building it is 
not necessary. It is well to pass the sawdust through a riddle to 
cleanse it from the coarse fragments of wood which are always to 
be found amongst sawdust. Steam pipes so covered lose less heat 
than when covered by any other known or patented, process sold 
for that purpose. It is much less expensive and much more 
efficient. 

To Harden Wood Pulleys. — Soft maple is often used 

in the construction of friction pulleys. If it is boiled in olive-oil it 
will prove beneficial in a number of ways. It will harden the 
timber and render it less liable to split, but at the same time the 
gear will slip more after such treatment. 

TO Prevent Belts Slipping. — A piece of rubber belting 
fastened around the belt pulley of an engine will keep the belt 
from slipping. 

Rasps. — A farrier's rasp is an excellent tool for preparing a 
rough piece of wood or ivory for the lathe. Where only a small 
quantity of the material is required to be removed it will be found 
to be more convenient than the axe' or paring-knife. There is also 
a somewhat similar tool used by shoemakers which, for smaller 
jobs, will be found equally efficient. 

Soft Files. — Small single-cut files or "floats" of various 
shapes not hardened, may be met with at some of the dealers in 
watchmaker's tools, which are useful in finishing small articles in 
hard wood, ivory, and also gold and silver ; they are used some- 
times by jewellers for finishing, on account of their leaving a 
smooth surface behind them instead of a rough one, as a cross-cut 
file does. 

Amalgam Varnish. — Melt together equal parts of bis- 
muth, tin and quicksilver; when melted and cooled make it into a 
varnish with white of egg. It is used for the varnishing of plaster- 
of-Paris figures and others of the like kind. Some people recom- 



I 

IIO PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

mend lead, but lead soon becomes tarnished, but tin and bismuth 
will keep bright. 

Painting and Preserving Ironwork.— A good black 

paint for coarse ironwork may be made by mixing plumbago with 
hot coal-tar. Equal parts of asphaltum and resin dissolved in com- 
mon turpentine make also a good, cheap covering for heavy iron- 
work. For machinery, dissolve 2 lbs. india-rubber, 4 lbs. resin, 
and 2 lbs. shell-lac, in 5 gallons of benzine. This may be used 
with any other paint as a vehicle. Wrought-iron bridges are 
painted with white-lead as follows : The ironwork is first made 
clean by scrubbing and brushing it with wire brushes; this done, 
all the cavities and fissures are filled up with a putty of litharge, 
linseed-oil, varnish, and white-lead ; this filling being dry, brushing 
is repeated. Afterwards a paint is applied, consisting of 300 lbs. 
of white-lead, 10 gallons of crude linseed oil, 1 or 2 gallons of 
boiled linseed-oil, and 1^ gallons turpentine. This paint is re- 
peated when sufficiently dry, and finally evenly overspread with 
white sand. Galvanizing is employed also to prevent rusting. A 
galvanizing paint consists chiefly of zinc powder and oil var- 
nish Rusting is further prevented by rubbing the red-hot iron with 
wax, tallow, pitch, or coal-tar. Rubbing with heavy petroleum is 
also well adapted for keeping ironwork clean. 

Preparing Soft Solder.— The following directions for 
soldering without fire or lamp may prove useful : Bismuth, 
y^ oz.; quicksilver, ^ oz.; block tin filing, 1 oz.; spirits of salts, 
1 oz. Mix the whole together. Another soft solder for tin, etc.: 
Take lead, 1 part; tin, 1 part; bismuth, 2 parts; this melts in 
boiling water. 

To Clean Silver Filigree.— Make a thin paste with cold 
water and cream of tartar, spread over ornaments thickly, fold in 
flannel, leave a week, then wash oft" with water, and they will be 
as good as new. 

Bronzing On Metal. — The article must be chemically 
cleaned up, brushing with a mixture of fine pumice in dilute sul- 
phuric acid, rinsed in pure water and dried. The bronze liquor 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. Ill 

must be applied quickly and evenly with a camel's-hair brush, hav- 
ing first heated the article, just so as it can be held without burning 
the fingers. 

Polishing Metals. — A useful compound for polishing and 
cleaning metals is composed of i oz. carbonate of ammonia dis- 
solved in 4 oz. water; with this is mixed r6 oz. Paris white. A 
moistened sponge is dipped in the powder, and rubbed lightly over 
the surface of the metal, after which the powder is dusted off, leav- 
ing a fine brilliant lustre. 

Imitation Marble. — Mix 1 lb. finely-powdered lime into a 
thick paste with water, and add ^ lb. of colophony, or, what is 
better, Venice turpentine. Allow the mixture to stand for some 
time, and then work up with it suitable quantities of fine white 
chalk and various colored earths, adding a few drops of olive oil 
if necessary. A soft mass is thus obtained, which can be moulded, 
like plaster-of-Paris, to any desired form, or it can be rolled out 
on a warm metal plate, or passed under wooden rollers, into 
thin sheets, which can be glued to the surface to be decorated, 
like ordinary veneers, and left to harden. It hardens and takes a 
good surface. Any cavities that appear must be filled up with 
some of the composition mixed with oil of turpentine. The com- 
position will keep fit for use for some time, if covered with a damp 
cloth while moist. 

To Polish Marble. — It sometimes happens that the cab- 
inet-maker has a table top of marble to remount, which is scratched, 
and requires re-polishing. The following is the process used by the 
mason, and will, therefore, be acceptable in a work like the present. 
With a piece of sandstone with a very fine grit, rub the slab back- 
ward and forward, using very fine sand and water, till the marble 
appears equally rough, and not in scratches; next use a finer stone 
and finer sand, till its surface appears equally gone over; then, 
with fine emery-powder and a piece of felt or old hat wrapped 
round a weight, rub till all the marks left by the former process are 
worked out, and it appears with a comparative gloss on its surface. 
Afterward finish the polish with putty-powder and fine, clean rags. 



112 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

As soon as the face appears of a good gloss, do not put any more 
powder on the rags, but rub it well, and in a short time it will ap- 
pear as if fresh from the mason's hands. 

Another. — Make a thick paste with rotten-stone and olive oil, 
and vigorously rub the marble with it on a cloth. 

TO Polish Black Marble. — Wash it with warm soap 
and water, and when dry rub it well with furniture paste or French 
polish, and then rub it with an old silk handkerchief. After one or 
two trials it will become quite bright. 

TO Clean Marble. — Mix the strongest soap-lees with 
quicklime to the consistency of milk; let it lie on the stone, etc., 
for twenty-four hours ; then clean it off, and wash with soap and 
water, and it will appear as new. The polish will require to be 
renewed by the process given above. 

Another. — Mix with J^ pint of soap-lees, ^ a gill of turpentine, 
sufficient pipe clay and bullock's gall to make the whole into a 
rather thick paste. Apply it to the marble with a soft brush, and 
after a day or two, when quite dry, rub it off with a soft rag. 
Apply this a second or third time till the marble is quite clean. 

To Remove Stains on Marble.— Apply spirits of salt 

and carefully wash off. 

To Clean Pictures. — Wash with a sponge or a soft leather 
and water, and dry by rubbing with a silk handkerchief. WherJ 
the picture is very dirty, take it out of its frame, procure a clean 
towel, and making it quite wet, lay it on the face of the picture, 
sprinkling it from time to time with clear soft water; let it remain 
wet for two or three days ; take the cloth off and renew it with a 
fresh one ; after wiping the picture with a clean wet sponge, repeat 
the process till all the dirt is soaked out ; then wash it well with a 
soft sponge, and let it get dry ; rub it with some clear nut or 
linseed-oil. Spirits of wine and turpentine may be used to dissolve 
the hard old varnish, but they will attack the paint as well as the 
varnish if the further action of the spirits is not stopped at the 
proper time by using water freely. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 1 13 

Cleaning Varnished Pictures — There are conditions 

where the above simple process will not accomplish what is re- 
quired ; where a thick coating of varnish has been applied to the 
picture, and it has been hung in a smoky room, and dust and dirt 
has been allowed to gather and remain; then it is that no high 
lights will be visible, the sky will be dirty, no distance visible, and 
perhaps the figures in the foreground very indistinct. Under these 
conditions the varnish must be either removed or the smoke and 
dirt must be brought out of the varnish. If it is thought desirable 
to try the latter, the following receipt will be found valuable for the 
purpose : 2 oz. wood naptha, i oz. spirits of salts, y£ pint of lin- 
seed-oil. 

Mix the above well together, and before using shake the bottle. 
It can be used as follows : Get some soft linen rag, and make up 
a soft pad, which place on the mouth of the bottle and shake up 
some of the mixture into the pad, when commence rubbing the 
picture with a circular motion, and when nearly dry again give the 
pad another dressing of mixture, and continue this mode of pro- 
cedure for some time, when the picture will gradually come out in 
all its detail. 

Cleaning Engravings. — Put the engraving on a smooth 
board, cover it thinly with common salt finely powdered. Squeeze 
lemon juice upon the salt so as to dissolve a considerable portion 
of it ; elevate one end of the board so that it may form an angle of 
about 45 or 50 degrees. Pour on the engraving boiling water from 
a tea kettle until the salt and lemon juice be all washed off. The 
engraving then will be perfectly clean and free from stains. It 
must be dried on the board or some smooth surface gradually. If 
dried by the fire or the sun it will be tinged with a yellow color. 

Cleaning Engravings. — Presuming these to be mounted, 
proceed in the following manner : Cut a stale loaf in half, with a 
perfectly clean knife ; pare the crust away from the edges. Now 
place the engravings on a perfectly flat table, and rubbing the sur- 
face with the fresh-cut bread, in circular sweeps, lightly but firmly 
• performed, will remove all superficial markings. Now soak the 
.prints for a short time in a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid, say 



114 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

i part acid to ioo of water, and then remove them into a vessel 
containing a sufficient quantity of clear chloride lime water to cover 
them. Leave them there until bleached to the desired point. 
Now remove, rinse well by allowing to stand an hour in a pan in 
which a constant stream of water is allowed to flow, and finally dry 
off by spreading on clean cloths. Perhaps the sheets may require 
ironing between two sheets of clean paper. 

To Smooth a Damaged Picture.— Paintings some- 
times get convex and concave patches on their surface, owing to 
pressure on one side or the other, and these inequalities cause a 
>eat deal of trouble to bring out. The most successful way is to 
well wet both sides of the picture on the spot, and keep it under 
pressure till dry. With small pictures the quickest way would be 
to take them off the stretcher and lay them in a press, with a light 
pressure between soft sheets of paper. 

Embossed Gilding for Illuminating.— Gilding of 

figures and letters on paper and for the embellishment of manu- 
scripts, is performed with shell gold tempered with gum water; or 
the characters may be drawn with a milky solution of gum amma- 
nacum made in water, and gold leaf applied upon them when 
almost dry; they may again be sufficiently moistened for receiving 
the gold by breathing on them. Letters raised from the surface, if 
paper or parchment in the manner of embossed work, such as are 
seen on ancient manuscripts, may be formed either by friction on a 
proper body with a solid piece of gold, or by leaf gold. 

The former method is practiced by tempering pulverizers' crystal 
with strong gum water, and with this paste forming the letters ; 
when they are dry, they are rubbed with a piece of solid gold as in 
polishing, and the letters will appear as if gilt with burnished gold. 
The letters are formed with an embossed figure, either of the separ- 
ate letters or of whole words cut in steel, and each letter of these 
stamps when they are used, is oiled evenly with a feather. Then 
fill these concave letters with the above paste, and strike the stamps 
in a perpendicular direction on the paper or vellum laid on sheets 
of soft paper. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 115 

When the embossed letters are formed with leaf gold, the follow- 
ing or a similar composition must be used. Thicken beaten whites 
of eggs with as much vermilion as is necessary to give them the 
consistence of paste; use the stamps as before, and when the letters 
are dry moisten them by a small pencil with strong gum water, and 
when this is almost dry cover the letters with leaf gold, pressing it 
close to every part of them with cotton wool; when dry, burnish. 

Gold for Illuminating. — Procure a book of leaf gold, 
take out the leaves gently and grind them in a mortar with a piece 
of honey about the size of a hazel-nut, until it is thoroughly inter- 
mixed with the gold, then add a little water and re-work it; put 
the whole into a vial and shake it well. Let it remain an hour or 
two, and the gold will deposit at the bottom of the vial. 

Pour off the liquor, and add weak prepared gum in its stead ; 
sufficient to make it flow freely from the pen or camel's-hair pencil. 
When required for use, shake it occasionally. 

To Stain Horn in Imitation of Tortoise Shell.— 

Mix an equal quantity of quicklime and red lead with strong soap 
lees, lay it on the horn with a small brush, in imitation of the 
mottle of tortoise-shell ; when dry, repeat it two or three times. 

To Stain Ivory or Bone Red. — Boil shavings of scarlet 

cloth in water, and add by degrees pearlash till the color is ex- 
tracted ; a little roach alum, now added, will clear the color; then 
strain it through a linen cloth. Steep your ivory or bone in aqua- 
fortis (nitrous acid) diluted with twice its quantity of water, then 
take it-out, and put it into your scarlet dye till the color is to your 
mind. Be careful not to let your aquafortis be too strong ; neither 
let your ivory remain too long in it. Try it first with a slip of 
ivory, and if you observe the acid has just caused a trifling rough- 
ness on its surface, take it out immediately, and put it into the red 
liquid, which must be warm, but not too hot. A little practice, 
with these cautions, will enable you to succeed according to your 
wishes; cover the places you wish to remain unstained with white 
wax, and the stain will not penetrate in those places, but leave the 
ivory of its natural color. 



Il6 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

To Stain Ivory or Bone Black. — Add to any quan- 
tity of nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) three times its bulk of water, 
and steep your ivory or bone in it ; take it out again in about an 
hour, and expose it to the sunshine to dry, and it will be a perfect 
black. 

To Stain Ivory or Bone Green.— Steep your work in 

a solution of verdigris, sal-ammoniac and weak aquafortis, in the 
proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter, being 
careful to use the precautions mentioned for staining red, as above. 

To Stain Ivory, etc., Blue. — Stain your materials green 
according to the previous process, and then dip them in a strong 
solution of pearlash and water. 

To Stain Ivory, etc., Yellow. — Put your ivory in a 

strong solution of alum in water, and keep the whole some time 
nearly boiling; then take them out and immerse them in a hot 
mixture, of turmeric and water, either with or without the addition 
of French berries; let them simmer for about half an hour, and 
your ivory will be of a beautiful yellow. Ivory or bone should dry 
very gradually, or it will split or crack. 

To Soften Ivory. — Slice a quarter of a pound of mandrake, 
and put it into half a pint of the best vinegar, into which put your 
ivory; let the whole stand in a warm place for forty-eight hours, 
when you will be able to bend the ivory to your mind. 

To Bleach Ivory. — Take a double handful of lime, and 
slake it by sprinkling it with water; then add three pints of water, 
and stir the whole together; let it settle ten minutes, and pour 
the water into a pan. Take the ivory, and steep it in the lime- 
water for twenty-four hours, after which boil it in a strong alum- 
water one hour, and dry it in the air. 

Artificial Ivory. — Two parts of caoutchouc are dissolved 
in 36 parts of chloroform, and the solution is saturated with pure 
gaseous ammonia. The chloroform is then distilled off at a tem- 
perature of 85 C. (1S5 F.) The residue is mixed with cal- 
cium phosphate or zinc carbonate, pressed into moulds and dried. 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 1 17 

When calcium phosphate is used, the product possesses to a con- 
siderable degree the nature and composition of ivory. 

Cement for Joining Leather.— A cement which has 

been found useful for this purpose may be prepared by mixing ten 
parts of bisulphate of carbon, one of oil of turpentine, and so much 
gutta-percha as is necessary to produce a thick fluidity. The 
leather must be first freed from all grease, which can be done by 
simply laying it in a cloth and pressing this with a hot iron. The 
parts to be joined, after being brought into contact with the cement, 
require to be kept pressed together until they are quite dry. 

Cement for Leather and Wood.— Equal parts of 

pitch and gutta-percha melted together. This compound is in- 
soluble in water. 

Cement for Joining China, etc. — Beat the whites of 

eggs well to a froth, let them settle, add soft grated or sliced cheese 
and quicklime ; beat them well together, and apply" a little to the 
broken edges. This cement will endure both fire and water. 

Cement for China, etc. — Pound half an ounce of resin 
and four ounces of gum-mastic; put them into a pipkin on the fire 
to melt; stir them well. To this add about half an ounce of finely- 
powdered glass, and half an ounce of quicklime ; stir the whole 
well together. When nearly cold, form it into sticks, on a stone, 
in the same manner as sticks of sealing-wax are formed. When it 
is desired to cement any article, heat the broken edges sufficiently 
to melt the cement, which rub thinly on both edges; bring them 
accurately together; press them close, and let them cool. If this 
be carefully done, the work will sooner break in any other part 
than where the cement has been applied. 

Cement for Glass. — Steep one ounce of isinglass in half a 
pint of spirits of wine for twenty-four hours ; then let it dissolve 
over a slow fire (always keeping it covered, or the spirit will evapor- 
ate) ; now well bruise six cloves of garlic in a mortar, put them in 
a linen cloth, and squeeze the juice into the isinglass; mix all well 
together, and keep it for use. It is excellent to join glass orna- 
i nients, etc. 



IlS PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

Cements for Aquariums.— Take i gill of plaster-of- 

Paris, i gill of litharge, i gill of fine white sand, y 2 gill of finely- 
powdered resin. Mix well, and bottle and cork it until wanted for 
use, then mix it with boiled oil and dryers until as thick as putty. 
Mix the cement only in small quantities as it dries quickly. 

Mix boiled linseed oil, litharge, red and white lead together, 
using white lead in the largest proportion, spread on flannel, and 
place on the joints. 

A solution of glue, 8 oz. to i oz. of Venice turpentine; boil to- 
gether, agitating all the time, until the mixture becomes as com- 
plete as possible, the joints to be cemented to be kept together for 
forty-eight hours if required. 

Take y 2 a gill of gold size, 2 gills of red lead, ij^ gill of litharge, 
and sufficient silver-sand to make it into a thick paste for use. 
This mixture sets in about two days. 

To Restore the Elasticity of Cane-Chair Bot- 
toms. — Turn up the chair bottoms, and with a hot water and 
sponge wash the cane work well, so that it may be well soaked ; 
should it be dirty you must add soap. Let it dry in the air, and 
you will find it as tight and firm as when new, provided the cane 
is not broken. 

Moths in Carpets. — Moths will work in carpets in rooms 
that are kept warm in winter as well as in summer. A sure method 
of removing the pests is to pour strong alum-water on the floor to 
the distance of half a yard around the edges before laying the 
carpets. Then once or twice during the season sprinkle dry salt 
over the carpet before sweeping. Insects do not like salt, and suf- 
ficient adheres to the carpet to prevent them alighting upon it. 

To Destroy Moths in Carpets.— Take a wet sheet or 

other cloth, lay it upon the carpet, and then rub a hot flat-iron 
over it, so as to convert the water into steam, which permeates the 
carpet beneath, and destroys the life of the grub. 

To Clean Carpets. — The carpet being first well beaten and 
freed from dust, tack it clown to the floor; then mix half a pint of 
bullock's-gall with two gallons of soft water; scrub it well with 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 119 

soap and the gall-mixture; let it remain till quite dry, and it will 
be perfectly cleansed, and look like new, as the colors will be re- 
stored to their original brightness. The brush used must not be 
too hard, but rather long in the hair, or it will rub up the nap and 
damage the article. 

To Make Parchment Transparent— Soak a thin 

skin of parchment in a strong ley of wood ashes, often wringing it 
out till it becomes transparent ; then strain it on a frame, and let 
dry. 

This will be much improved if, after it is- dry, you give it a coat, 
on both sides, of clear mastic varnish, diluted with' spirits of tur- 
pentine. 

Tinting On Parchment— On a good skin you may get 
an even tint, as follows: After "inking in" the plan, cover (with 
a large color brush) rather more than the whole of it with a strong 
wash of alum dissolved in water, taking care that every portion is 
saturated by the solution, and when dry brush away the dry alum, 
and the parchment will then take color almost as easily as paper, 
and the ink will not be disturbed. 

India Ink Running. — If it is for drawing plans you may 
prevent it running by adding a little sugar to the India ink. 

Erasing Indian Ink. — The most effective mode of erasing 
Indian ink lines is by rubbing the part to be erased with sand- 
paper of the finest quality, which will not only effectually remove 
the ink, but will leave a clear, smooth surface, which will take the 
ink better than at first, and may be colored upon. 

To Make Carbon Paper. — Carbon paper, for copying 
or duplicating, can be made in the following manner: Take sweet 
oil, mixed to the consistence of cream, with either of the following 
paints (to produce the color desired) : Prussian blue, lampblack, 
Venetian red, or chrome green; they should.be ground fine on the 
stone. Use rather thin but firm paper, put on with a sponge, and 
wipe off as dry as possible; then lay them between uncolored 
paper, and press by laying a weight or some other heavy flat sub- 



120 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

stance upon them until the surplus oil is absorbed, when it is ready 
for use. 

Removing Oil Stains from Tiles.— You can remove 

oil stains from tiles completely by mixing fuller's earth into a thick 
paste with water, and spreading it over the tiles, letting it remain 
twenty-four hours, and then wiping it off. If the mark, then, has 
not quite gone, put on another paste. 

To Polish Floors. — Put some spermaceti into a saucepan 
on the fire, and mix it with enough turpentine to make it quite 
fluid; then with a piece of flannel put it very thinly on the floor. 
It must then be rubbed with a dry flannel and brushed in the same 
way that oak stairs are polished. This part of the process, rubbing 
and brushing takes a long time to do thoroughly. 

Another. — Dissolve half a pound of potash in three pints of water, 
in a saucepan on the fire; when the water boils throw in one 
pound of beeswax cut up in small pieces ; stir it well until the wax 
is quite melted. When the polish is cold, if it be too thick, add 
more water, then with a brush paint the boards evenly with it ; 
and when it has dried rub them with a flannel tied at the end of a 
broom. 

Black "Wax. — Add one ounce of beeswax to half an ounce 
of Burgundy pitch ; melt them together, and add one ounce and a 
half of ivory -black, ground very fine, and dried. 

Green Wax. — Melt one ounce of beeswax, and add half 
an ounce of verditer ; let the pipkin be large enough, as the wax 
will immediately boil up. Stir it well, and add the eighth part of 
an ounce of resin, when it will be sufficiently hard and fit for use. 

To Polish Tortoise Shell or Horn.— Having scraped 

your work perfectly smooth and level, rub it with very fine sand- 
paper or Dutch rushes ; repeat the rubbing with a bit of felt 
dipped in a very finely powdered charcoal with water, and lastly, 
with rotten-stone or putty-powder; and finish with a piece of soft 
wash-leather, damped with a little sweet oil. 

To Clean Looking Glasses.— Sponge down the glass 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 121 

with gum and water, equal parts, then dust down with whitening, 
and finish with a soft old silk handkerchief. 

To Remove Ink Stains. — Ink stains may he removed 
from a mahogany table by putting a few drops of spirits of nitre 
into a teaspoonful of water, and touching the part stained with a 
feather dipped into the mixture ; immediately the ink stain disap- 
pears, the place must be rubbed with a rag wet with cold water, or 
there will be a white mark, which will not easily be removed. Ink 
stains on silver or plated articles may be removed immediately and 
effectually without doing any injury to the things, by making a 
little chloride of lime into a paste with water and rubbing the 
stains until they disappear, and afterwards washing the article with 
soap and water. Ink stains may be removed from colored table 
covers by dissolving a teaspoonful of oxalic acid in a teacupful of 
hot water and rubbing the stained part well with the solution. Ink 
stains may be taken out of anything white by simply putting a little 
powdered salts of lemon on the stain, damping it, allowing it to re- 
main about five minutes, and then washing it out with soap and 
water, when the stain will disappear. Ink may be removed from 
boards by applying some strong muriatic acid or spirits of salt with 
a piece of rag and afterwards well washing the place with water. 

To Remove Stains From Wood.— To half a pint of 

soft water put an ounce of oxalic acid and half an ounce of butter 
of antimony; shake it well, and when dissolved it will be very use- 
ful in extracting stains, as well as ink from wood, if not of too 
long standing. 

To Clean Velvet. — Velvet requires very careful manipula- 
tion, as it loses its fine appearance if wrung or pressed when it is 
wet. To remove dust : — Strew very fine dry sand upon the velvet, 
and brush in the direction of the lines until all the sand is removed. 
The brush must be clean. To remove dirt : — Dissolve ox-gall in 
nearly boiling clean water, and add some spirits of wine. Dip a 
soft brush into this solution and brush the dirt out of the velvet. 
It may require repeated brushing. After this, hang it evenly up to 



122 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

dry. For finishing, apply a weak solution of gum by means of a 
sponge to the reverse side of the velvet. 

To Remove Paint or Stain from Wood.— Dissolve 

potash in water, making a strong solution, with this wash the sur- 
face of the work, allowing it to soak a few minutes. If the paint 
cannot then be scraped off, give the wood another application, and 
repeat until the paint is removed. Afterward, wash the surface 
ivith clean water sufficiently to ensure the removal of all the 
potash. 

To Remove Varnish from Wood. — A strong applica- 
tion of ordinary spirits of camphor will .remove almost any kind of 
polish or varnish. Give the spirit time to evaporate before re- 
polishing, or it will injure the new polish. 

The solution of potash, mentioned above, will also remove var- 
nish. 

Tests for Gilding. — If a gilt surface be touched with a 
drop of chloride of gold or nitrate of silver solution, the former will 
produce a brown, the latter a grey spot if the coating be an alloy, 
but will have no effect upon pure gold. For gilt paper, moisten with 
a drop of chloride of sulphur, which will immediately produce a 
dark brown margin if the covering is not pure gold. Metallic 
spangles shaken in close flasks with chloride of sulphur, suffer no 
change if gold, otherwise they gradually darken ; but if under 
slight pressure, as in hermetically sealed tubes, gold spangles dis- 
appear in a short time by conversion into chloride of gold. 

Anti- Attrition. — This mixture is made of one part of plum- 
bago or blacklead ground very fine, and four parts of hog's lard or 
grease, mixed well together. It prevents the effects of friction 
much better than oil or other grease, and is very useful for the 
turner, and will be found to make the lathe work much easier, as 
well as to be a great saving in oil, which with constant use grows 
stiff, and sensibly impedes the motion; while this preparation, once 
applied, will last a long time without requiring renewal. . 

To Remove Grease from Cloth.— Drop on the spot 

some oil of tartar, or salt of wormwood, which has been left in a 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. I 23 

damp place till it turns into a fluid; then immediately wash the 
place with lukewarm soft water, and then with cold water, and 
the spot will disappear. 

This will be found very useful, as it frequently happens that the 
cloth of the card tables, and the inside flaps of secretaries, are 
spotted and greasy. By proceeding as above, every spot of grease 
will be completely taken out. 

Putty. — Painters use various kinds of putty, using varnish, 
japan, oil, keg lead, dry lead, red lead, whiting, zinc white, umber, 
yellow ochre, etc., in the composition of the various kinds. In 
mixing up putty the painter should always be governed by the 
time he may have in which to complete his work. If the work he 
is doing must be completed in an unreasonably short time, the 
putty should be mixed with very little or no oil, although a putty 
mixed with japan alone will dry quicker, so as to bear sand-paper- 
ing in the shortest possible time, but it is a mealy, poor kind of 
putty, and is apt to shrink, allowing dampness to penetrate it when 
rubbed with pumice-stone and water. 

The best and toughest kind of putty is made of keg and dry 
white lead, with only a small portion of japan. In making this 
kind of putty, use about 4 pounds of keg lead to about a gill of 
japan, mixing them thoroughly together; then add dry white lead 
in small quantities, pounding it lightly at first, and when you have 
added sufficient dry lead to form a mass like dough, use the mallet 
or hammer very freely. If dry zinc white is used instead of dry 
lead, the putty will be much better. This putty should be allowed 
three or four days to dry. Another kind of this necessary com- 
pound is made by using keg lead and red lead. The latter is of 
itself a powerful dryer, consequently it does not require so much 
japan to dry the putty. It works very easy and adheres to the 
wood very tenaciously, and is not apt to swell or shrink. 

HOW to Boil Linseed Oil.— First be sure that you have 
the pure linseed oil. There is much sold as such manufactured out 
of peanuts. The test is simple. Nut oil has a sharp, acid taste, 
smells just like sour peanuts, is darker and thicker than the other 



124 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

oil, lias a clinging tendency when rubbed on the finger, dries with 
a gloss even in priming coats, and is very much given to gumming 
up when sanded. Pure linseed oil has a bright amber color, runs 
freely, sparkles when flowing from the can, tastes smooth and mild, 
and has the smell of a flax-seed poultice. When you are satisfied 
that you have the genuine oil, and wish to boil it thoroughly, first 
take, say about one-half pound of red lead and the same quantity 
of sugar of lead, put into five gallons of the oil, and place over a 
slow fire so as to boil evenly. Do not let your fire get either too 
hot or too low; keep an even temperature, if possible; coke or 
charcoal is preferable to either hard or soft stone coal. Avoid a 
wood fire, as, after the oil gets to boiling heat, a sudden flame 
shooting up might ignite the entire lot. Let it boil seven hours 
full ; the red lead and sugar of lead will then become dark brown. 
Stir all the time while boiling slowly, and only one way ; do not 
change the direction of the stroke or you will burn the oil, just as 
you would starch. After you have taken it from the fire, cover it 
up and let it stand to cool off, say overnight. The sediment will 
settle; pour out the oil and strain; your oil is boiled, and a better 
article you could not have, as all the fatty substances are de- 
stroyed. This is the English method, used in all the carriage fac- 
tories in the United Kingdom. 

Mordants for Staining Wood.— Sulphuric acid, more 
or less diluted, according to the intensity of the color to be pro- 
duced, is applied with a brush to the wood, previously cleaned 
and dried. A lighter or darker brown stain is obtained, accord- 
ing to the strength of the acid. When the acid has acted suffi- 
ciently its further action is arrested by the application of am- 
monia. Tincture of iodine yields a fine brown coloration, which, 
however, is not permanent unless the air is excluded by a thick 
coating of polish. Nitric acid gives a fine permanent yellow, 
which is converted into a dark brown by the subsequent applica- 
tion of tincture of iodine. 

Ebonizing. — To French-polish a black sideboard it is not 
absolutely necessary to use black polish, but it is usual to do so, 



UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 



! 5 



as it produces a finer black. The sideboard, or any kind of furni- 
ture, is polished in the usual manner, by using black polish, and 
filling up the grain with black; the simplest kind is weak glue and 
lamp-black. When dry, paper down and polish as usual. The 
rubber of the polisher should be dipped in ivory-black, or gas- 
black, moistened with black polish, covered with linen rag, a touch 
of linseed oil, and used as usual. Black polish is made thus: — 
One gill dark French polish poured into a clean bottle, then add 
y 2 oz. best ivory-black, or gas-black is best ; in fine powder well, 
shake until mixed, and used as before described. Gas-black is 
made by impinging a broad gas burner on the bottom of a glue- 
pot or sheet of metal, and gathering the black as made. 

Picture Frames. — A simple plan for holding frames in 
position till dry is to tack lengths of wood on a board, and after 
laying the frame between them, gently press wedges till the joints 
are home. It is such a common complaint of the nonconformity 
between the first and last mitre, that gilt corners are made ready, 
like charity, to cover a multitude of sins. These, if laid on a damp 
cloth, soon become sufficiently pliable to take the bend of the 
moulding, and, besides being very cheap, are a great improvement 
and a blessing to many besides amateurs. 

Varnish, for TOOlS. — For tool handles there is nothing 
better than shellac varnish. It should be put on before the handle 
is removed from the lathe. Use it the same as French polish, and 
in small quantities. 

Painting On Zinc. — According to the Painter's Magazine, 
painting on zinc is made easier by employing a mordant composed 
of one quart of chloride of copper, one of nitrate of copper, and 
one. of sal ammonia, dissolved in 64 parts of water, and to this 
mixture is added one part of commercial hydrochloric acid. This 
is brushed over the plate of zinc, and after 12 or 24 hours it drys a 
dullish gray color. Painting upon this surface the colors will ad- 
here in a perfect manner. Another method, according to the same 
authority, is as follows : Procure some muriatic acid of full 
strength, and drop into it some pieces of zinc until effervescence 



126 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 

ceases. Add an equal quantity of water, and with a sponge tied 
to a stick wash over every part of the surface to be painted. This 
roughens the surface and takes off that sort of greasiness which 
prevents paint from adhering. After the acid has remained a short 
time wash it over with water or diluted vinegar, dry off and paint. 

Violin Varnish. — The Scientific American gives the fol- 
lowing formula for preparing a beautiful varnish for violins : Rec- 
tified alcohol, half gallon; add six ounces gum sandarac, three 
ounces gum mastic, and half a pint turpentine varnish; put the 
above in a tin can by the stove, frequently shaking until well dis- 
solved. Strain and keep for use. If you find it harder than you 
wish, thin with more turpentine varnish.. 

Imitating Mahogany. — When curly-veined birch and 
beech have been regularly brushed with aquafortis and dried at the 
fire, they both look remarkably like mahogany. A decoction of 
logwood and fustic, when put on in a tepid state, produces a simi- 
lar effect. The French mode consists in brushing the white timber 
with a dilute solution of nitrous acid ; it is then coated once or 
twice with finishing spirit, in which a quantity of carbonate of soda 
and dragon's-blood has been dissolved, the proper proportions to i 
gill of spirit being J^ °f an ounce of the soda, and ^ of an ounce 
of the blood; the wood is afterwards finished with varnish or 
polish of a reddish-brown tint. In producing this shade of color, 
London stainers frequently use a rich brownish-red kind of chalk, 
the color of which is analogous to that of fine Spanish mahogany. 
It is commonly applied in the form of a dry powder, by means of 
a hrush, and then well rubbed with another brush or coarse flannel. 

To Stain Beech a Mahogany Color.— Put 2 oz. of 

dragon's-blood, broken in pieces, into a quart of rectified spirits of 
wine; let the bottle stand in a warm place, shake it frequently ; 
when dissolved it is fit for use. 

Imitation Of Mahogany.— Plane the surface smooth, 
and rub with a solution of nitrous acid. Then apply with a soft 
brush one ounce of dragon's-blood dissolved in about a pint of 






UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 127 

alcohol, and with y$ of an ounce of carbonate of soda mixed and 
filtered. When the brilliancy of the polish diminishes, it may be 
restored by the use of a little cold-drawn linseed-oil. 

Bronzing Inlaid Work. — A. method used for decorating 
inlaid work is the use of a bronzing liquid, which consists of a fluid 
bronze composition formed by combining metallic powder of gild- 
ing and bronze powder with collodion, which composition is ca- 
pable of being applied as a bronze liquid to surfaces of wood, iron, 
o"r any solid material, for the purpose of coating the same for decor- 
ation or preservation. 

To Imitate King or Botany Bay Wood.— Boil % 

lb. French berries in 2 quarts of water till of a deep yellow, and 
while boiling hot give two or three coats; when nearly dry, form 
the grain with black stain, which must also be used hot. For 
variety, to heighten the color, after giving it two or three coats of 
yellow, give one of strong logwood liquor, and then use the black 
stain as directed. 

Black Stain. — Boil i lb. of lowood in 4 quarts of water, add 
a double handful of walnut peels or shells; boil it up again, take 
out the chips, add a pint of the best vinegar, and it will be fit for 
use; apply it boiling. This will be improved, if, when dry, a solu- 
tion of green copperas, an ounce to a quart of water, is applied hot 
over the first stain. 

Black Stain for Immediate Use.— Boil y 2 lb. of chip, 

logwood in 2 quarts of water, add 1 oz. of pearlash, and apply it 
hot to the work with a brush. Then take y 2 lb. of logwood, boil 
it as before in 2 quarts of water, and add ^ oz. of copperas ; strain 
it off, put in 1/2 lb. of rusty steel filings; with this go over the work 
a second time. 

Brown Stain. — Paint over the wood with a solution made 
by boiling 1 part catechu, cutch, or gambier, with 30 parts of 
water and a little soda. This is allowed to dry in the air, 
and then the wood is painted over with another solution made 
of 1 part of bichromate of potash and 30 parts of water. By 



128 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, ■ 

a little difference in the mode of treatment, and by varying the 
strength of the solutions, various shades of color may be given with 
these materials, which will be permanent, and tend to preserve the 
wood. 

Red Stain. — i. Take i lb. of Brazil wood to i gallon of 
water, boil 3 hours with 1 oz. of pearlash, brush it hot on the wood, 
and while hot brush the wood jvith a solution made with 2 oz. of 
alum in 1 quart of water. 2. An infusion of Brazil wood in stale 
urine, in the proportion of a pound to a gallon for wood ; to be 
laid on when boiling hot, and should be laid over with alum water 
before it dries. Or, a solution of dragon's-blood in spirits of wine 
may be used. 

Red Stain for Bedsteads and Common Chairs. 

Archil will produce a very good stain of itself when used cold; but 
if, after one or two coats being applied and suffered to get almost 
dry, it is brushed over with a hot solution of pearlash in water, it 
will improve the color. 

W^alnut Stain. — Water, i quart; washing soda, 1 1 /, oz.; 
Vandyke brown, 2]4 oz.; bichromate of potash, y^ oz. Boil for 
10 minutes, and apply with a brush, in either hot or cold state. 



INDEX. 



Anti-attriiion, 122. 

Belts, to prevent slipping, 108. 

Black slain, 127. 

Boiler incrustation, 108. 

Bronzing, 54. 

iniaid work, 127. 

on metal, no. 
Brown stain, 127. 

Bruises in lurniture, to take out, 102. 
Brushes lor varnishing, 29. 
Cane-chair bottoms, to restore elasticity, 118. 
Carbon-paper, to make, 118. 
Carpets, to clean, 118. 

to destroy moths in, 118. 
Carving, reeding, etc., 18. 
Cements for aquariums, 118. 

for china, 117. 

for glass, 117. 

for joining leather, 117. 

for leather and wood, 117 , 

for stopping flaws, 103. 

for turners, 103. 
Circular saws, to remedy splits in, 106. 
Color harmony in grained work, 67. 
Colored woods, metals, etc., 11. 
Colors for outlines of ornaments, 66. 
Colors, to mix, 66. 

buff, 66. 

carnation, 66. 

chestnut, dark, 66. 

Chinese white, 65. 

chocolate, 66. 

cream, 65. 

drab, 65. 

fawn, 65. 

French grey, 66. 

gold, imitation of, 66. 

green, grass, 66. 

green, olive, 06. 

lead, 66. 

peach blossom, 66. 

pearl, 65. 

purple, 66. 

salmon, 66. 

silver, 66. 

stone, 66. 

straw, 65. 

varnish green, 69. 

violet, 66. 

white lead, 68. 

yellow, 66. 
Composition for frame ornaments, 49. 
Cracks in drawing-boards, 104. 
Dye, black, fine, 44. 

blue, fine, 44. 

gray, 46. 

green, 45. 

liquid, for brightening and setting, 46. 

orange, 46. ■ 

purple, 46. 

red, 45. 

yellow, fine, 45. 
Dyeing wood, 43. 
Ebonizing, 124. 
Ebony finish, 33. 
Engravings, to clean, 113. 
Files, soft, 109. 
Filigree, silver, toclean, no. 



Fillers, 23. 

cherry, 25. 

light-wood, 24. 

oak, 25. 

rosewood, 25. 

sizing, 25. 

walnut, 24. 
Finishing, 20. 

processes of, 22. 

varieties of, 31. 

dead-finish, 32, 
ebony finish, 33. 
French polishing, 34. 
varnish finish, 33. 
wax finish, 33. 
wax finish, imitation, 33. 
flowing, 30. 
Floors, to polish, 120. 
Framing work, 11. 
French polish, 34, 36. 
French polishing, 31. 
Furniture cream, 96. 
.Furniture paste, 97. 

General remarks on designs for cabinet work, 9. 
Gilding, 47. 
Gilding, burnish, 51. 

applying the size, 52. 

burnishing, 53. 

finishing, 53. 

laying the gold, 52. 

matting or dead gold, 53. 

polishing, 52. 

preparing the woodwork, 51. 

gilders' cushion, 48. 

oil, 50. 

sizes for, 48. 

to manipulate gold leaf, 54. 

oil size for, 49. 

parchment size for, 49. 

gold size for burnish, 49. 

the requisites, 48. 

to prevent gold adhering. 49. 
Gilding, embossed, for illuminating, 114. 

silvering and bronzing, 47. 

tests for, 96. 
Glue, 98. 

portable, 101. 

mixing, 99. 

to prepare, 98. 

to prevent cracking, 100. 

to resist moisture, 100. 
Glue pot, 99. 
Graining, 55. 

grounds, 58. 

bird's-eye maple, 59. 
mixing colors, 58. 
mahogany, 58. 
oak, 59. 
rosewood, 58. 
the process, 56. 
Grease, to remove from cloth, 97. 
Gums and their qualities, 69. 

amber, 69. 

anime, 70. 

bleached shellac, 81. 

copal, 70. 

daniar, 72, 

lac, 71, 



130 



INDEX. 



Gums, mastic, 71. 

resin, 72. 

sandarac, 71. 
Horn, to polish, 120. 

to stain in imitation of tortoise shell, r 1 5. 
How to boil linseed-oit, 123. 
Imitation mahogany, 126. 
India ink, to erase, 119. 

to prevent running, 119 
Ingredients, 35. 
Ink stains, to remove, 119. 
Inlaying, 15. 

with shaded wood, 16. 
Ironwork, painting and preserving, no. 
Ivory, artificial, 116. 

to bleach, 116. 

to soften, 116. 

or bone, to stain black, 116. 
blue, 116. 
red, 115. 
yellow, 116, 
Lac, gum, 71. 
Lacquers, colored, 91. 

for brass, 91. 

hardwood, 88. 
Looking glasses, to clean, 120. 
Marble, imitation, 1 1 1. 

to clean, 112. 

to polish, in, 

to remove stains on, 113. 
Mastic, gum, 71. 
Metals, polishing, in. 
Mordants for staining wood, 124. 
Moths in carpets, to destroy, 118. 
Moulding ornaments, etc., 18. 
Painting on zinc, 125. 
Parchment, tinting on, 119. 

to make transparent, 119. 
Paste for laying cloth or leather, 102. 
Picture frames, 125. 
Pictures, to clean, 112. 

to smooth damaged, 114. 
Polish for turner's work, 38. 

French, 36. 

improved, 37. 

prepared spirits, 37. 

revivers, g6. 

water-proof, 37. 
Putty, 123. 
Rasps, 109. 
Red stain, 128. 

for bedsteads, 128. 
Resin, 72. 
Rubbing, 30. 
Sandarac, gum, 71. 
Saws, band, brazing, 106. 

circular, to remedy splits in, 106. 

sharpening, 106. 
Shell-gold, 53. 
Silver-size, 54. 
Solder, soit, preparing, no. 
Stain, black, 38. 

blue, fine, 42. 

brown, 40. 

cherry, 41. 

crimson, fine, 42. 

mahogany, 42. 

oak, 40. 

purple, 42. 

red, 41. 

rosewood, 41. 

walnut, 40. 



Stain, yellow, 43. 
Staining, 38. 
Stains, surface, 42. 

to brighten, 43. 

to remove from wood, 121. 
Steampipes, non-conducting covering for, 108 
Steel scrapers, to cut, 105. 
Tempera, 67. 
Tests for gilding, 122. 
Tiles, to remove oil stains from, 120. 
Tints, 67. 

To imitate Eotany Bay wood, 1 27. 
I'o imitate inlayingof silver strings, 17. 
To raise old veneers, 14. 
To remove grease from cloth, 122. 
To stain beech, 126. 
Tones, 67. 
Tools, oiling, 107. 

to harden, 105. 

to mark, 107. 

to temper, 105. 

varnish for, 108. 
Tortoise shell, imitation of f 115, 

to polish, 120. 
Tracing-paper, 103. 
Tracings, to mount, 104. 
Turpentine, oil of, 73. 
Varnish, amalgam, 109. 

amber, pale, 69. 

black, 95. 

brown hard spirit, 87 

cabinet, 81. 

carriage, 82. 

copal, 80. 

crystal, 93. 

for cane and basket work, 96. 

for iron, 95. 

for paper, 93. 

for tools, 125. 

violin, 126. 

for tools, 108. 

lacquer, hardwood, 88. 

mastic, 71. 

sealing-wax, g$. 

turpentine, 93. 

wainscot, 82. 

water, 94. 

white spirit, 87. 
Varnishes, 69. 

application of, 26. 

gums and their qualities, 69. 

oil, 70. 

oil, preparation of, 75. 

spirit and turpentine, 71. 

" " preparation of, 83. 

solvents, 72. 
alcohol, 74. 
linseed-oil, 72. 
naphtha, 74. 
turpentine, 73. 
Varnish pan, 29. 

to remove from wood, 121. 
Velvet, to clean, 121. 
Veneers, to raise old, 101. 
Walnut stain, 128. 
Waterproof polish, 37. 
Wax, black, 120. 

finish, 33. 

imitation, 33. 

green, 120. 
Wood pulleys, to harden, 109. 



HAND KIP-SAWS, $50. 



Circular and 

Scroll-saw $45. 



Scroll-saw 

$23. 




COMPLETE OUTFITS FOR 

ACTUAL WORKSHOP BUSINESS. 

FULL LINE TO BE SEEN EST OPERATION AT 

LITTLES 

Hardware Store, 

59 Fulton Street, New York. 



IT =H 




MECHANICS' TOOLS AND TOOL CHESTS. 

|HIPMAN'S STEAM ENGINES, 

MAN POWER, $50; 1 HORSE POWER, $75. 

EVERY ENGINE G U^_E_4l NTEE 13. 

SEND FOR PRICE LIST TO 

cn^v». e. little:, 

of) Fulton Street, New York 



BARNES' 

Patent Foot anil Steam Power Maclery. 

COMPLETE OUTFITS FOR 

BUSINESS IN THE WORKSHOP. 

Lathes for Wood or Metal, Circular Saws, Scroll Saws, 

Formers, Mortisers, Tenoners, etc., etc. Machines „ 

ox Tkial, if desired. 




HAND CIRCULAR RIP SAW. 



READ WHAT OUR CUSTOMERS SAY. 

E. F. Southwick, North East, Pa., says: "I am so much pleased with 
your machinery that I sliall purchase more as fast as I am able, until I have a 
full set. The No. 2 Former I am very much pleased with. It takes away thai 
home-made appearance from my furniture, so that no one would think it was 
made in a little shop like mine." 



Norris Cook, Hendersonville, ^T. Y., says: "The Machine I ordered Iron 
you is at hand. It is all right, and works' like a charm. We have tried it ir 
every way in which it can be used, and find that it does all that you recommend 
it to 'do. It will be worth its cost to me in one year. Our foreman says it if 
worth SoOOto us. I have ordered the agent to forward the balance due you. J 
shall want your Tenoner for the next machine I buy. 



.Tas. M. Sheetz, Fisherville, Pa., says : 
Former Attachment 
order. They do all, 
claim for tbem. No 
builder, doing any 
ford to do without 
fore I tried them, I 
monials from parties 
aggerated ; but it is 
No. 2 Saw and Former 
vour machines, and 
highly." 



'The No. 




i- - V: ■ C ' i 'f ""■^ss&S-^ 



2 Velocipede Saw am 
came to hand in gooi 
and more, than yoij 
cabinet-mak er 
business at all, can ai 
your machines. Bi* 
thought the teslimo 
using them were ex 
not so. Besides tin 
I have seen other 
can recommend then 



Messrs Ammann &. McDowell, Orville, 0.. Say : " The No. 3 Lathe ant 
Boring Attachment for our Combined Machine came to hand in good order 
We are very much pleased with them ; they give better satisfaction than in 
anticipated. Since your machines, so far, have given such good satisfaction, w< 
have concluded to have a full line. Please ship us a No. 2 Former, with tin 
usual set of knives." 



Messrs. Tolmie & Wilson, Bridgeton. Ont. (Can.), says: "We have one o ( 
your Combined Machines, which we have had in constan 
use the past four years, and it is as good now as it wa' 
the day we bought it. We would not be without it. lor an, 
amount." 




ADDRESS 

W. R & JOHN BARNES, 
ROCKFORD, ILL. 

No. 213 Ruby Street. 




FIRST-CLASS 




FITTED UP WITH BEST TOOLS 
SUITABLE FOR THE YOUTH, 
THE AMATEUR, OR PRAC- 
TICAL MECHANIC. 



These chests are put up in 
various sizes, ranging in price 
from S12.00 to $125.00 each. 
Catalogue Grvroa Particulars on Application. 
First-class Mechanics' Tools of the hest known makers : all the Latest Designs 
in Tools, and General Assortment of Hardware. 

Scroll Saws, Designs, Fancy Woods for Bracket Work or Amateur Car- 
pentry. 

JA&. T. PEATT & CO., 

53 Fulton Street, cor. Clilt' Street, New York. 

WHEELERS PATENT 

WOOD FILLER. 

THE ONLY ARTICLE TO GIVE A DURABLE, ECONOMICAL, 
NATURAL AND FERFECT FINISH TO HARD WOOD. 

Send for Pamphlet giving' Directions for 
Finishing Hard Wood. 

Garnish, Oil Finish, Wood Stains, 

AND ALL REQUISITES USED IN FINISHING 
HARD WOOD. 

THE BRIDGEPORT WOOD FINISHING CO., 

40 Bleecker Street, 

NEW YORK. 
GRANVILLE M. BREINIG, Agent. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

A Collection of Useful :m<l Reliable Recipes, 

Rules, Processes, Methods, Wrinkles, 

:i in! Practical Hints, 

for the househoeh .urn the shop. 






CONTENTS. 

Abyssinian Gold:— -Accidents, General Rules; — Alabaster, how to work, polish and 
clean; — Alcohol; — Alloys, rules for making, and 26 recipes; — Amber, how to work, 
polish and mend; — Annealing and Hardening glass, copper, steel, etc.; — Arsenical 
Soap; — Arsenical Powder; — Beeswax, how to bleach; — Blackboards, how to make ; — 
Brass, how to work, polish, color, varnish, whiten, deposit by electricity, clean, etc., 
etc.; — Brazing and Soldering; — Bronzing brass, wood, leather, etc.; — Burns, how to 
cure; — Case-hardening; — Catgut, how prepared ; — Cement*, general rules for using, and 
56 recipes for preparing; — Copper, working, welding, depositing; — Coral, artificial; — 
Cork, working; — Crayons for Blackboards: — Curling brass, iron, etc.; — Liquid Cu- 
ticle; — Etching copper, steel, glass ; — Eye, accidents to; — Fires, to prevent; — Clothes on 
Fire; — Fireproof Dresses; — Fly Papers; — Freezing Mixtures, 6 recipes; — Fumigating 
Pastils; — Gilding metal, leather, wood, etc.; — Glass, cutting, drilling, turning in the 
lathe, fitting stoppers, removing tight stoppers, powdering, packing, imitating ground 
glass, washing glass vessels, etc. ; — Grass, Dry, to stain ; — Guns, to make shoot close, 
to keep from rusting, to brown the barrels of, etc., etc. ; — Handles, to fasten ; — Inks, 
rules for selecting and preserving, and 34 recipes for; — Ink Eraser; — Inlaying; — Iron, 
forging, welding, case-hardening, zincing, tinning, do. in the cold, brightening, etc., 
etc. ; — Ivory, to work, polish, bleach, etc. ; — Javelle Water ; — Jewelry and Gilded Ware, 
care of, cleaning, coloring, etc. ; — Lacquer, how to make a nd apply ; — Laundry Gloss ; — 
Skeleton Leaves; — Lights, signal and colored, also for tableaux, photography, etc., 25 
recipes; — Lubricators, selection of, 4 recipes fur ;— Marble, working, polishing, clean- 
ing; — Metals, polishing ; — Mirrors, care of, to make, pure silver, etc., etc.: — Nickel, 
to plate with without a battery; — Noise, prevention of; — Painting Blight Metals; — 
Paper, adhesive, barometer, glass, tracing, transfer, waxed, etc.; — Paper, to clean, take 
creases out of, remove water stains, mount drawing paper, to prepare for varnishing, 
etc., etc. ;— Patina; — Patterns, to trace; — Pencils, inde'ible; — Pencil Marks, to fix; — 
Pewter;— Pillows for Sick Room, cheap and good ;-- Plasier-of- Paris, how to work;— 
Poisons, antidotes for, 12 recipes;— Polishing Powders, preparation and use ot (six 
pages);— Resins, their properties, etc. ;— Saws, how to sharpen ;— Sieves;— Shellac, 
properties and uses of; — Silver, properties of, oxidized, old, cleaning, to remove ink 
stains from, to dissolve from plated goods, etc., etc. :— Silvering metals, leather, iron, 
etc. ;— Size, preparation of various kinds of;— Skins, tanning and curing, do with hair 
on;— Stains, to remove from all kinds of goods:— Steel, tempering and working (six 
pages);— Tin,* properties, methods of working ;— Varnish, 21 recipes for;— Varnishing, 
directions for;— Voltaic Batteries;— Watch, care of;— Waterproofing, 7 recipes for;— 
Whitewash;— Wood Floors, waxing, staining, and polishing;— Wood, polishing;— 
Wood, staining, 17 recipes;— Zinc, to pulverize, black varnish for. 

I6i closely-printed pages, neatly bound. Sent bv mail for 36 cents 

(postage stamps received). 



A $10.00 BOOK FOR $2.50! 
MOORE'S 

UNIVERSAL ASSISTANT AND COMPLETE MECHANIC, 

Containing over One Million Industrial Facts, 

CAL RnsVvF^ N ^^2 CE f SSES ' TRADE SE CRETS, RULES, LEGAL ITEMS, 
Manumctor ' etc -' m eTery Occupation, from the Household to the 

Mn A n W p^°f=!!, I ! e T!? Ie '?, utilityt0 J e T? rjrMecllani0 ' Far&et; Merchant, Business 
!1,™t, ! ™T U ' anc ? Householder, as it embraces the main points 
illustrations Occupations. It contains 1016 pages, and over 500 

The following synopsis gives some idea of the value and scope of the work. 
ihe contents are as follows: 

SlU J -- ? rea £' Cracke £ Pastl T and Cake Baking, Domestic Cooking, etc. 

n 1 » E or Farmers i Horse Shoers, Stock Owners, Bee Keepers, etc. 

Fart 3.— For Lumbermen, Carpenters, Builders. Contractors, Mill Owners, 
Shipbuilders, Ship Owners, Freighters, Navigators, Quarrymen, Mer- 
chants and Business Men generally. 

Part 4.— Natural Mechanical and Scientific Facts. 

ES a -— S°^- :Dy r e S' t'lotlilers, Bleachers, Hatters, Furriers and Manufacturers. 

Part 6. -Medical Department for Druggists, Physicians, Dentists, Perfumers, 
Barbers, and general Family Use. 

Part ".—For Grocers, Tobacconists,' Confectioners, Saloon Keepers, Syrups 
Cordials, Ice Creams, Summer Drinks, Domestic Wines, Canned Goods 
Soaps, etc. ' 

Part 8.— For Tanners and Curriers. Boot, Shoe. Harness and Rubber Manufac- 
hirers, Marble and Ivory Workers, Bookbinders, Anglers, Trappers etc 

Part 9.— For Painters, Decorators, Cabinet Makers, Piano and Organ Manufac- 
turers, Polishers. Carvers. Gilders, Picture Frame and Art Dealers 
China Decorators. Potters, Glass Manufacturers, Glass Stainers and 
Gilders, Architects, Masons, Bricklayers, Plasterers, Stucco Workers, 
Kalsominers, Slaters, Roofers, etc. 

Part 10.— For Watchmakers, Jewelers, Gold and Silversmiths, Gilders, Bur- 
nishers, Colorers, Enamelers, Lapidaries, Diamond Cutters, Engravers, 
Die Sinkers, Stencil Cutters. Refiners, Sweepmelters. 

Part 11.— For Engineers, Firemen, Engine Builders, Steam Fitters, Master Me- 
chanics, Machinists, Blacksmiths. Cutlers, Locksmiths, Saw, Sprin"- 
and Safe Manufacturers, Iron and Brass Founders, Mill Owners! 
Miners, etc. 

Part 12.— For Art Workers, Bronzing, Dipping and Lacquering, Brass Finishers 
Hardware Dealers, Plumbers, Gas Fitters, Tinmen, Japanners, etc. 

Part 13.— For Printers and Publishers, Gas Companies and Consumers, Gun- 

^ smiths, Contractors, Quarrymen, Coal Dealers, Oil Manufacturers, 

Sugar Refiners, Paper Manufacturers, Cotton and Woollen Manufac- 
turers, Cutlers, Needle and File Manufacturers, Metal Smelters, etc., 
etc. 
Part 14.— The Amenities of Life, Useful Adv'ce. 
Part 15.— Tables, etc.. Embracing Useful Calculations in Every Business. 

Price, in Cloth Binding, $2.50 ; in Leather Binding, $3.50. Standard Export 
Edition, Cloth Binding, $3.00 ; in Leather, Lettered Back and Marbled Edges, 
. Library Style. $4.00. 

Sent by mail, postpaid, to any address on receipt of price. Agents wanted, to 
whom we offer big pay. Address all orders and applications for an agency to 

J. S. OCILVIE & CO., Publishers, 

1». O. Box 976V. 31 Rose Street, Mew York. 



ESTAEIjISIIEr) 1852. 



C. RECHT, 

183 BOWERY, NEW YORK. 

BRANCH STORE, 

118 Grand Street, Brooklyn, E. D. 



MI 




IN 



METALS. 



Mechanics' Tools of All Kinds, 

For Carpenters, Cabinet Makers, Piano Makers, Wood 
Turners, Machinists, Metal Workers, etc. 



BENT TANG CHISELS AND GOUGES 

For Pattern Makers. 



Tools Warranted. 



BEST ASSORTMENT OF 

GUNS, FISHING TACKLE, 
SPORTING GOODS. 



Twenty-seventh Edition. 



March, 1S84. 



DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE 

OF 

Practical Books 

AND 

PERIODICALS, 

PUBLISHED AND FOR SALE BY 

THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION CO. 



' KNOWLEDGE IS POWER.'' 




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INDUSTRIAL. PUBLICATION CO., 

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A New and Live Boole on the Gun,. 

Just Published. Price 75 cents, in cloth. 

PLAIN DIRECTIONS 

FOR ACQUIRING THE ART OF 

SHOOTING ON THE WING. 

With Useful Hints concerning all that relates to Guns and Shoot' 

: ng, and particularly in regard to the art of Loading so as 

to Kill. To which has been added several Valuable 

and hitherto Secret Recipes, of Great Practical 

Importance to the Sportsman. 

By AN OLD GAMEKEEPER. 

Sent free Vy mail on receipt of price. 



Opinions of the IPrest. 

The directions are so plain that they cannot well be mistaken, 
and they are expressed in the fewest possible words.— Titrf, Field 
and Farm. 

Facing the title-page is one of the handsomest, best-executed 
woodcuts, we have ever seen, it is entitled ''The Wounded 
Snipe," and almost equals a steel engraving. — Baptist Union. 

i?rom its pages we should think even the most experienced 
sportsman might derive some new ideas, while the beginner will 
Ind it an invaluable assistant. — ( 'ourdry Gentleman. 

For concise instructions as to how to shoot, to select, load, 
iarry, and keep a gun in order, etc., it cannot be surpassed.— 
Western Rural. 

i pleasantly written, and, it seems, to us, correet and practical 
treatise on the sportsman's art; a modest little book, but one from 
the reading of which a good deal ot the right kind of kuowlen^'* 
is to be gained. — Applelon's Journal 

A practical and well-written handbook, especially adapted for 
atxe use of young sportsmen, as it f,ives sensible advice on the 
manipulation of firearms, and the rules and etiquette of liie field. 
Scientific American. 



NOW READY. 



Second and Enlarged, Edition. 



The Steel Square 



AND ITS USES. 



By FIfcEX). T. HODGSON. 



This is the only work on The Steel Square and Its Uses ever 
published. It is Thorough, Exhaustive, Clear, ami Easily Understood. 
Confounding terms and scientific phrases have been religiously avoided 
where possible, and everything in the book has been made so plain that 
a boy twelve years of age, possessing ordinary intelligence, can under- 
stand it from end to end. 

The New Edition is Illustrated with over Seventy-five Wood-cuts, 
showing how the Square may be used for solving almost every problem 
in the whole Art of Carpentry. 

The following synopsis of the contents of the work will give some 
idea of its character and scope. 

— History of the "Square." — Descrip- 
tion, with Explanations of the Rules, Fig- 
ures, Scales, and Divisions shown on good 
Squares. 

— Brace Rules. Octagonal Scale, Board, 
Plank and Scantling Rules, fully explained 
and described. 

— How to lay out Rafters, Hips, Jack- 
Rafters, Purlins, Bevel Works, etc., etc. 

— Backing for Hips, Lengths and Bevels 
of Valley Rafters. Laying out Stairs and 
Strings. 

— How to describe Circles, Ellipses, 
Parabolas and other figures, with the 
Square. 

— How to obtain Bevels for Hoppers 
and all kinds of Splayed Work and Spring 
Mouldings, by the Square. 

— Bisecting Circles, Proportion of Cir- 
cles, Division of Widths, Bisection of 



Angles, Diminishing Stiles, Centering 
Circles, etc., etc. 

— Theoretical Rafters, Cuts for Mitre 
Boxes, Measurement of Surfaces, including 
Painting, Plastering, Shingling, Siding, 
Flooring, Rough Boarding, Tinning and 
Roofing. 

— Rules for describing Octagons and 
Polygons of every description, and how 
to find their angles and areas. 

— Rules for finding the lengths of Rafters 
and Hips nf Irregular Roofs, Cuts for 
Equal and Unequal Mitres, Trusses and 
Bevel Timber Work. 

— The Development of Hip and Curved 
Roofs; Veranda Rafters, Straight and 
Curved ; Hopper Cuts of all kinds. Angle 
Corner-pieces, Splayed Work for Gothic 
Heads, etc., etc., and many other things 
useful to the Operative Mechanic. 



Handsomely Bound in Cloth with Oilt Title. 
Price OMI DOLLAR, 



THEIR USE, CARE AND ABUSE. 

HOW TO SELECT, AND HOW TO FILE THEM. 

Being a Complete Guide for Selecting, Using and Piling all kinds of Hand- 
Saws, Back-saws, Compass and Key-hole Saws, Web, Hack and 
Butcher's Saws ; showing the Shapes, Forms, Angles, Pitches 
and Sizes of Saw-Teeth suitable for all kinds of Saws, and for 
all kinds of Wood, Bone, Ivory and Metal ; together with 
Hints and Suggestions on the Choice of Files, Saw- 
Sets, Filing Clamps, and other Matters pertain- 
ing to the Care and Management of all 
Classes of Hand and other Small Saws. 
TJhe work is intended more particularly for Operative Carpenters, 
Joiners, Cabinct-Makers, Carriage Builders, and Wood-Workers 
Generally, Amateurs or Professionals. 

ILLUSTMJ.TED JSV OTEll SEVENTY-FIVE ENGRAVINGS. 

By FRED. T. HODGSON, 

Author of "The Steel Square and Its Uses," "The Builder's Guide akd 
Estimator's Price Book," Practical Carpentry," Etc., Etc. 

Price -.__._ $1.00. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAKT I. 

History of the Saw. — Saws of the Greeks.— Invention of the First Saws.— 
Eygptian Bronze Saws in the British Museum. — Antiquity of Saws. — 
Mention of Saws in Holy Writ.— Saws of the Stone Age.— Saws of the 
South-sea Islanders.— Saws for Cutting Stone. — Japanese Saws.— Dif- 
ferent Varieties of Saws. — Manner of Using Saws by the Ancients. — 
Assyrian Saws.— Invention of Circular and Band-Saws.— First Circular- 
Saws in America. 

PAET II. 

Philosophy oi" the Cutting Qualities of Saw-Teeth.— The "Why and Where- 
• fore" of the Cutting Pitch and Angles of Rip-Saw Teeth.— The Round 
, Gullet-Tooth. — Chisel-Teeth and their Action on the Wood. — On 
the Various Angles Required for Cutting Hard and Soft Woods, with 
Explanations of Space, Pitch, Gullet, Gauge, Set, Rake and Points. — 
Names of Saws, with Dimensions, Form of Teeth, Descriptions and 
Explanations. — How to Choose a Saw ; with Hints as to Form, Quality, 
Make and '■' Hang " of a Saw, with Remarks Concerning Different 
Makers — Sash-Saws, Dovetail-Saws, Rip-Saws, Panel-Saws, Cross-cut 
Saws, Bow-Saws, Web-Saws, Key-hole Saws, Compass-Saws and Tenon- 
Saws. 

PAET III. 

How to Use Hand-Saws.— How to Saw Well and Easily.— Hints for Sawing 
Straight. — Rules for New Beginners.— French, German and American 
Workmen.— Saws Filed to Work on the Pull-Stroke.— Changeable 
Key-hole Saws.— Use of Back-Saws.— Use of Web-Saws.— Care of 
Buck-Saws.— The Buck-Saw; the Terror of Boyhood, and Why.— The 
Butcher's-Saw. the Hack-Saw. and the Sursedn's-Saw with Descrip- 
tion of Each, and Hints as to their Management. 



table of contents {Continued). 

PAST IV. 

Filing and Setting Hand-Saws.— The Qualities Required to make a Good 
Filer.— Rules in some Old-time Joiner Shops.— Careless Filing and its 
Consequences.— Clamping Saws for Filing.— The Line of Teeth.— 
Angular Groove on Cutting Edge of Saw.— Filing Backs of Teeth.— 
Jointing the Sides of Teeth.— Shape of Teeth for "Cross-cutting Hard 
Wood, Medium and Soft Wood. — Cutting Angles Required for Various 

Degrees of Hardness in Woods Angle'to Hold the File.— The True 

Theory of Saw-Filing.— Buckling ancf Twisting Saws; How Done and 
How Avoided.— " Hook and Pitch." — Careless Use of Saws, and the 
Injm'ies Done to them in Consequence. — The Filing of Different Saws, 
and why One Class of Saws Require Different Treatment from Another. 
The Saw that Scrapes, and the Saw that Cuts ; the "Why" of this Dif- 
ference. — Why Some Men do Much More Work than Others, and with 
Greater Ease, when Sawing. 

PAET V. 

Miscellaneous Saws ; their Uses, How to Care for Them, and How to Use 
Them.— The M Tooth, Teeth that Cut Both Ways, Crenate Teeth, 
Brier Teeth, Gullet Teeth, Parrot-bill Teeth, Hog Teeth, the Lancet 
and other Fancy Forms of Teeth, Described and Explained.— The Old- 
style " Peg Tooth," for Two-handed Cross-cut Saws. — Various Exam- 
ples of the "Peg-Tooth Saw. — Hack-Saws; How to Use and How to 
Keep in Order.— Butcher's-Saws, Surgeon's-Saws, Saws for Cutting 
Combs, Ivory, Brass, Gold, and Silver.— Circular-Saws for Cutting 
Metal, Ivory, Tortoise-shell, and other Hard Materials.— Jig-Saws, 
Band-Saws ; their Uses and How to Keep them in Order.— Scroll-Saws ; 
their Uses and Care.— Progress of the Band-Saw ; its Future ; How to 
Make them do Clean Work.— Heating Saws ; Rules for their Manage- 
ment Why Circular-Saws Burst. 

PAET VI. 

Remarks on Saws, Files, Sets, and other Appliances.— Saw-Files ; what 
Constitutes a Good One, and How to Select.— Different Qualities of 
Saw-Files, and How to Know the Various Grades. — Why there are 
Different Grades.— Hints on the Use of Files.— Circular-Saws that are 
not Circular.— How to Become an Expert Sawyer.— Speed of Circular- 
Saws ; Table of Same.— Speed of Reciprocating-Saws, or Jig-Saws, 
Speed of Feed for Same.— Working Action of Band-Saws.— How Band- 
Saws Became Possible.— French and American Band-Saw Blades.— 
Inside Sawing with Band-Saws.— Detachable Band-Saws.— Aids to 
Saw-Filing. — Saw-Clamps. — Saw-Filers. — Saw-Sets. — Hand-Setting 
with Punch and Hammer.— Setting with " Sets."— Machine Band-Saw 
Setters Devices for Holding Saws while being Set and Filed. 

PAET VII. 

Notes and Memoranda.— Saw-Gauges.— Comb-Saw Gauges.— Saw-Gut. Its. 
Mitre-Boxes.— Circular ?>s. Band-Saws. -Emery Sharpeners.— Small 
. Saws.— Machine-Saws.— Narrow Saws.— Brazing Band-Saws.— Re- 
marks on Circular-Saws.— Power Required to Drive Circular-Saws.— 
Mill-Saws Saws with Few Teeth. 



IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT 

TO ARCHITECTS, CONTRACTORS AND BUILDERS. 

For many years past there has been a want by the building fraternity of a good 
and reliable book on Estimating, one that will give prices of materials and labor 
for every department of building, so far as this is possible. Such a book, the pub- 
lishers believe, has at last been produced, and is now offered to those interested. 

THE BUILDER'S GUIDE, 

AND ESTIMATOR'S PRICE BOOK. 

By FRED. T. HODGSON. 



HANDSOMELY BOUND IN CTA>TH, GILT TITLE. PRICE, - $2.00. 
Current Prices of Lumber, Hardware, Glass, Plumbers' Supplies, Paints, 
Slates, Stones, Limes, Cements, Bricks, Tin and other Building Materials; 
also, Prices of Labor, and Cost of Performing the Several Kinds of Work 
Required in Building. Together with Prices of Doors, Frames, Sashes, 
Stairs, Mouldings, Newels, and other Machine Work. To which is appended 
a large number of Building Rules, Data, Tables and Useful Memoranda, 
with a Glossary of Architectural and Building Terms. 

This is an entirely new work, and gives Prices of Labor and Materials down 
to a recent date, and is, therefore, the most reliable book in the market on the 
subject of prices of labor and materials required for building. The work con- 
tains, besides Prices, Data, Rules, and Several Hundred Tables and Hints on 
Building, a blank column where the prices of Labor or Material may be written 
in pencil, where such prices differ from those given in the book. There is also 
a very complete Glossary of Building and Architectural Terms appended to the 
work, which is a useful and valuable addition for practical builders. 

The work is really a Cyclopaedia of Prices and Builder's Tables, Data and 
Memoranda, and is necessarily a large work, having over 330 pages, each page 
being 74 x 44, and covered with closely printed matter. 

In order to give an idea of what the work contains, we give the following brief 
SYNOPSIS OF CONTESTS: 

Part I.— Contains Hints and Rules for Correct. Estimating.— Forms for Taking 
Estimates, Quantities, Prices, and Manner of Computation.— General Memoranda 
of Items for Estimates. — Excavations.— Foundations. — Drains.— Iron Work. — 
Baths and Water Closets.— Brick Walls.— Carpenter's Work.— Joiner's Work.— 
Mantels, Grates, Stove Fittings, etc.— Pantry, Closets, Kitchens and Appurten- 
ances.— Bell Hanging, Gas Fixing and Fixtures.— Stairs and Staircases.— Roof's, 
Gutters and Conductors.— Porches, Verandas and Fences.— Framing; Cost of 
same.— Cost of Painting, Plastering, Shingling. Slating, Tinning, "Finishing, 
Glazing, Building Chimneys, and other Brick Work.— Rules for Measuring all 
kinds of Hip and other Roofs, with Cost of same.— Rough Boarding. Shingling, 
Siding, Laying Floors, and other Work.— Cost of Material and Labor for Stairs, 
Newels, Balusters, Rails, Doors, Mouldings. Sliding and Folding Doors, Windows 
of all kinds, Blinds, Wainscoting, Baseboards, Finials, Cresting, Plumbing, Floor- 
ing, and everything else used about a Building. 

Part II.— Contains an Extensive Schedule of Builder's Prices, for Digging, 
Shovelling, Ramming in Loose Earth, Clay and Gravel.— Cost of Masonry, 
Rubble, Hammer-Dressed Work, Rough Rock Work, Reveals, Ashler Work, Be- 



synopsis of contents (Continued). 

pairs, Arches, Plain Work, Rubbed Work, Beaded Work, Fluting, Reeding, 
Throating, Grooving, Rebating, Leading in Work, Sunken Work, Mortising, 
etc.— Prices of ail kinds of Native Stones per Cubic Foot.— Prices of Cements; 
Portland, Rosendale, Keene's, Lime of Teil, Lime, Lath, Slate, etc.— Bricklay- 
ing; Price per 1,000, Laborer's Wages, Prices of Bricks of Different Grades, Cir- 
cular and Elliptical Work, Brick Paving of all kinds, Laid Dry or in Mortar.— 
Drain Pipes, Cost and Quality; Terra-Cotta Chimney Tops, Cresting, Tiles and 
Mouldings, etc.— Colored Bricks, Tuck Pointing, S'etting in Sash and Door 
Frames, Taking Down Old' Work, Rebuilding with Old Bricks, Firebricks, Tile 
Work, Quality and Prices of Bricks from Various Localities, Prices of Peerless 
Brick Company's Colored Bricks, Colored Mortars and Cements, Odd-Shaped 
Bricks.— Plasterer s Work, Scaffolding, Lathing, Mortars for all kinds of Work, 
Cements for Walls and Ceilings, Cornices and Stvicco Work, Plaster-of-Paris 
Flower and Ornamental Work, Kalsomining and Washes of all Kinds.— Carpen- 
ter's and Joiner's Work ; Wages, Prices of Lumber, Prices of Made-up Stuff of all 

Kinds.— Hard-wood Work, Nails, Screws. Locks, Butts and other Hardware 

Stairs of all Kinds, Table for Finding the Run and Rise of Treads and Risers, 
Turned Work for Stairs and other Work.— Painting, Colors, Prices for Different 
Kinds of Work, Ladders, Scaffolding, Tools, Graining, Painting Iron Work, 
Staining, Repairing Old Work. Numerical Work, Varnishing, Lettering, Oiling, 
Sash and Door Painting, Mixing Colors, Prices of Colors, Miscellaneous Re- 
marks.— Rooting Materials of all "Kinds, with Prices and Cost of Laying ; Bell- 
Hanging Materials, Skylights, Tubs, Sinks, Sheet Iron, Pumps, Tanks', Registers, 
Ventilators, Wire Ropes, and other matters required in Building. 

Part III.— Contains Rules for Builder's Bookkeeping, Form of Balance Sheet, 
Rules for Measuring Artificer's Work, including Excavation, Drains, Shoring, 
Concreting, and Labor in General : also Methods of Measuring all Kinds of Ma- 
terials for Brick, Stone, or Wood Work. — Elements of the Mechanics of Archi- 
tecture, Strength of Materials, Rules for Obtaining Same ; Iron, Wood, Stone 
and Brick, Crushing Loads for Various Building Materials, Columns, Iron, Wood, 
Stone.— Tables for Computing the Strength "of 'Materials, Factors of Safety, 
Rolled-Iron Beams and Girders. — Bricks and Brick Piers, Terra-Cotta, Strength 
and Qualities of Cements and Mortars, Fire-Brick, Colored Mortars, Granite and 
other Stone. 

Part IV.— Miscellaneous Tables.— Weight of Iron, Lead, Brass, Copper and 
Cast Iron, per Foot Superficial or in Bars ; Strength of Round Ropes, Weight of 
Boiler Iron, Wrought-Iron Pipes, Flat and Round Wire Ropes for Elevators, Iron 
Roofing, Lead Pipes, Nails, Foreign Weights and Measures, Force of Wind, 
Square Measure, Long Measure, Equivalents, Arithmetical and other Signs, Ex- 
pansion by Heat, Force of Explosives, Number of Shingles, Slates, Tiles and 
other Covering Required for 100 feet of Roofing, Number of Bricks Required for 
Given Wall, Strength of Woods, Loads for Bridges, Strains on Bridges and 
Trusses, Specific Gravities. 

Part V.— Mensuration of Supcrfices, Areas of Squares, Cubes, Triangles, 
Multi-sided Figures, etc.; Measurements of Solids, Cubes, Cones, Cylinders, 
Spheres, etc.; Squares and Cubes of Numbers, Table of Spherical Contents, 
Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles, Board and Plank Measure, 
Scantling Measure, Wages Table, Sizes and Capacities of Cribs, Boxes and Tanks. 

Part VI. — Mechanics' Lien Laws of Alabama. Arkansas, Connecticut, Cali- 
fornia, Colorado, District of Columbia, Delaware, Florida, Georgia. Indiana, 
Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, 
Mississippi, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, Nevada, Nebraska, New Hamp- 
shire, North Carolina, New York, Oregon, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 
South Carolina, Texas, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, 
Ontario. 

Part VII. — Schedule of Architect's Charges, Drawings, Superintendence, Per- 
centage on Public Buildings.— Architect's Rules and Methods of Charging for 
Services Rendered. — Leading Architectural and Building Journals. — Glossary of 
Architectural and Building Terms. (This "Glossary" covers some fifty-seven 
pages, and deals with over One Thousand Terms used in Architecture and 
Building). 



PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 

BEENG A GUIDE TO THE 

Correct Working and Laying Out of all hinds 
of Carpenters' and Joiners' Work. 

With the Solutions of the Various Problems to Hip-Roofs, Gothic 
Work, Centering, Splayed Work, Joints and Jointing, Hing- 
ing, Dovetailing, Mitering, Timber Splicing, Hopper 
Work, Skylights, Raking Mouldings, Circular 
Work, Etc., Etc. 

TO WHICH IS PREFIXED A THOROUGH TREATISE ON 

"CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY." 

ILLUSTRATED JBT OVER, 300 ENGRAVINGS. 

By FRED. T. HODGSON, 

Author of "The Steel Square and Its Uses," "The Builder's Guide 

and Estimator's Price Book," "The Slide Rule and 

How to Use It," Etc., Etc. 

Handsomely Bound in Cloth, Price $1.00. 

This is the most complete book of the kind ever published. It is 
Thorough, Practical and Reliable, and at the same time is written 
in a style so plain that any workman or apprentice can easily un- 
derstand it. The annexed table of contents will give a better idea 
of its scope and value than can be had from any amount of notices 
or descriptions : 

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PART I. 

Geometry.— Straight Lines.— Curved Lines. —Solids.— Compound Lines. 
—Parallel Lines- — Oblique or Converging Lines. — Plane Figures. — 
Angles.— Right Angles.— Acute Angles.— Obtuse Angles.— Right- 
angled Triangles.— Quadrilateral Figures.— Parallelograms.— Rect- 
angles. — Squares. — Rhomboids. — Trapeziums. —Trapezoids. — Diag- 
onals. —Polygons.— Pentagons. — Hexagons. — Heptagons. — Octa- 
gons.— Circles.— Chords.— Tangents.— Sectors.— Quadrants.— Arcs.— 
Concentric and Eccentric Circles. — Altitudes. — Problems I. to XXTX. 
— Drawing of Angles. — Construction of Geometrical Figures.— Bisec- 
tion of Lines. — Triseetion of Lines and Angles. — Division of Lines 
into any Number ot Parts.— Construction of Triangles, Squares and 
Parallelograms.— Construction of Proportionate Squares.— Con- 
struction of Polygons.— Areas of Polygons. — Areas of Concentric 
Rings and Circles. — Segments of Circles. — The use of Ordinat.es 
for Obtaining Arcs of Circles.— Drawing an Ellipse with a Trammel. 
— Drawing an Ellipse by means of a String.— Same by Ordinates, — 
Raking Ellipses,— Ovais.— Sixty-two Illustrations. 



PAET II. 

Aeches, Centees.— Window and Door Heads.— Semi-circular Arch.— 
Segmental Arches.— Stilted Arches.— Horseshoe Arch.— Lancet Arch. 
—Equilateral Arch.— Gothic Tracery.— Wheel-Windows.— Equila- 
teral Tracery.— Square Tracery.— Finished Leaf Tracery.— Twenty- 
two Illustrations. 



PAET III. 

Roofs.— Saddle Roof.— Lean-to or Shed Roof.— Simple Hip-Roof.— 
Pyramidal Roof.— Theoretical Roof.— Roof with Straining Beam.— 
Gothic Roof.— Hammer-Beam Roofs. — Curved Principal Roofs. — 
Roofs' with Suspending Rods. — Deck Roofs. — King-post and Prin- 
cipal Roof. — Queen-post and Principal Roof. — Roofs with Laminated 
Arches. — Strapped Roof Frames. — Tie-beam Roofs. — Boofs for Long 
Spans.— Theatre Roof. — Church Roof. — Mansard Roof. — Slopes of 
Roofs.— Rules for Determining the- Sizes of Timbers for Roofs.— 
Acute and Obtuse Angled Hip-Roofs. — Development of Hip-Roofs. — 
Obtaining Lengths and Bevels of Rafters. — Backing Hip-Rafters. — 
Lengths. Bevels and Cuts of Purlins.— Circular, Conical and Seg- 
mental Roofs.— Rafters with Variable Curves.— Veranda Rafters.— 
Development of all kinds of Rafters. — Curved Mansard Rafters.— 
.Framed Mansard Roofs. — Liues and Rules for obtaining various 
kinds of Information.— Thirty-four Illustrations. 



.PAET IV. 

Covering of Roofs.— Shingling Common Roofs.— Shingling Hip- 
Roofs.— Method of Shingling on Hip Corner.— Covering Circular 
Roofs.— Covering Ellipsoidal Roofs.— Valley Roofs.— Four Illustra- 
tions. 



PAET V. 

The Miteking and Adjusting of Mouldings.— Miteving of Spring 
Mouldings.— Preparing the Mitre-box for Cutting Spring Mould- 
ings. — Rules for Cutting Mouldings, with Diagrams. — Mitre-boxes 
of various forms.— Lines for Spring Mouldings of various kinds.— 
Seven Illustrations. 



PAET VI. 

Sasttes and Skylights.— Bni sed Skylights.— Skylights with Hips.— 
Octagon Skylights with Segmental Bibs.— Angle-bars, with Rules 
and Diagrams, showing how to obtain the Angles. Forms, etc.— Sash- 
Bars, Hints on their Construction.— Twelve Illustrations. 

PAET VIL 

Mouldings.— Angle Brackets.— Corner Coves.— Enlarging and Seduc- 
ing Mouldings.— Irregular Mouldings.— Raking Mouldings, with 
Rules for Obtaining.— Mouldings for Plinths and Capitals of Gothic 
Columns. — Mouldings around Square Standards. — Mitering Cir- 
cular Mouldings with each other.— Mitering Circular Mouldings 
with Straight ones.— Mitering Mouldings at a Tangent.— Mitering 
Spring Circular Mouldings.— Description of Spring Mouldings.— 
Lines for Circular Spring Mouldings,— Seventeen Illustrations. 



PAKT VIII. 

Joinery.— Dovetailing.— Common Dovetailing.— Lapped Dovetailing.— 
Blind Dovetailing.— Square Dovetailing.— Splay Dovetailing.— 
Regular and Irregular Dovetailing.— Lines and Cuts for Hoppers 
and Splayed Work.— Angles and Mitres for Splayed Work.— Nineteen 
Illustrations. 

PAET IX. 

Miscellaneous Problems.— Bent Work for Splayed Jambs.— Develop- 
ment of Cylinders.— Rules and Diagrams for Taking Dimensions.— 
Angular and Curved Measurements.— Eight Illustrations. 



PAKT X. 

Joints and Straps.— Mortise and Tenon Joints.— Toggle Joints.— Hook 
Joints.— Tongue Joint.— Lap Splice.— Scarfing.— Wedge Joints.— 
King-bolts.— Straps, Iron Ties, Sockets, Bearing-plates, Rings. 
Swivels and other Iron Fastenings.— Straining Timbers, Struts and 
King-pieces.— Three Plates, Sixty-five Illustrations. 



PAET XI. 

Hinging and Swing Joints.— Door Hinging.— Centre-pin Hinging.— 
Blind Hinging.— Folding Hinging.— Knuckle Hinging.— Pew Hing- 
ing.— Window Hinging.— Half-turn Hinge.— Full-turn Hinge.— Back 
Flap Hinging.— Rule-joint Hinging.— Rebate Hinging.— Three 
Plates, Fifty-one Illustrations. 



PAET XII. 

Useful Rules and Tables— Hints on the Construction of Centres.— 
Rules for Estimating.— Form of Estimate— Items for Estimating, - 
Remarks on Fences.— Nails: sizes, weights lengths and numbers — 
Cornices, Proportions and Projections for Different Styles of Archi- 
tecture : and Tall and Low Buildings, Verandas Bay Window's and 
Porches —Proportion of Base-boards. Dados, Wainscots and Sur- 
bases —Woods Hard and Soft, their Preparation, and how to 
Finish —Strength and Resistance of Timber of various kinds.— 
Rules showing Weight and other qualities of Wood and Timber.— 
Stairs' Width of Treads and Risers ; their Cost ; how to Estimate on 
them etc.— Inclinations of Roofs.— Contents of Boxes. Bins and 
Barrels.— Arithmetical Signs.— Mensuration of Superficies.— Areas 
of Squares, Triangles. Circles, Regular and Irregular Polygons — 
Properties of Circles.— Solid Bodies.— Gunter's Chain.— Drawing 
and Drawing Instruments.— Coloring Drawings.— Coloring for 
Various Building Materials.— Drawing Papers.— Sizes of Drawing 
Papers.— Table of Board Measure.— Nautical Table.— Measure of 
Time.— Authorized Metric System.— Measures of Length.— Mea- 
sures of Surfaces.— Measures of Capacity.— Weights.— American 
Weights and Measures.— Square Measure.— Cubic Measure.— Cir- 
cular Measure.— Decimal Approximations.— Form of Building 
Contract. 



The Only Practical Booh Published on this Subject. 

THE PISTOL 

AS A 

WEAPON OF DEFENCE, 

In the House and on the Road, 
12mo. Cloth. 50 cents. 



ThiB work aims to instruct the peaceable and law-abiding citizens in the 
best means of protecting themselves from the attacks of the brutal and 
the lawless. Its contents are as follows: The Pistol as a Weapon of De- 
fence — The Carrying of Fire-Arms — Different kinds of Pistols in Market; 
how to Choose a Pistol— Ammunition, different kinds; Powder, Caps, 
Bullets, Copper Cartridges, etc. — Best form of Bullet— How to Load- 
Beat charge for Pistols — How to regulate the Charge— Care of the Pistol; 
how to clean it — How to handle and carry the Pistol — How to Learn to 
Shoot — Practical use of the Pistol; how to Protect yourself and how to 
Disable your antagonist. 

"No man is fit to keep house who is not fit to defend it." — Henry War A 
Beecher. 

" So long as rogues cannot be prevented from carrying weapons, honest 
men do not consult their own safety and the public good by totally dis- 
carding them."— Recorder Hacketl. 

" Such I hold to be the genuine use of gunpowder; that it makes all met 
alike tall (or strong.)" — Carlyle. 

for Sale by all Newsdealers, or Sent postpaid by Hail on receipt of price 



Plaster and Plastering. 
MORTARS AND CEMENTS. 

HOW TO MAKE, AND HOW TO USE. 

BEING A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR THE PLASTERER IN THE PREPARATION 
AND APPLICATION OF ALL KINDS OF PLASTER, STUCCO, PORTLAND 
CEMENT, HYDRAULIC CEMENTS, LIME OF TIEL, ROSENDALE AND 
OTHER CEMENTS, WITH USEFUL AND PRACTICAL INFORMA- 
TION ON THE CHEMISTRY, QUALITIES AND USES OF THE 
VARIOUS KINDS OF LIMES AND CEMENTS. TO- 
GETHER WITH RULES FOR MEASURING, 
COMPUTING, AND VALUING PLASTER 
AND STUCCO WORK. 

TO WHICH IS APPENDED 

AN ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY OF TERMS 

USED IN PLASTERING, ETC. 

Besides numerous Engravings in the text, there are three Plates, giving some 
forty figures of Ceilings, Centrepieces, Cornices, Panels and Soffits. 



By FRED. T. HODGSON, 



Price 



1 .OO. 



INDEX. 



Description of Plates, 
Preface, . 
Preliminary, 



PAGE 

1 



TOOLS AND MATERIALS. 



The Hoe or Drag, 


. 10 


The Hawk, 


10 


The Mortar-Board, . 


. 11 






Floats 


. 11 


Moulds, . 


11 


Centre Moulds, 


. 12 


The Pointer, . 




The Paddle, 


. 12 


Stopping and Pricking-out 


Tool, 12 


Mitering Rods, . , 


. XI 



The Operator, 

The Scratcher, . 

The Hod, 

The Sieve, 

Sand Screens, 

Mortar-Beds, 

The Slack Box, 

Lath, 

Lather's Hatchet, 

Nail Pocket, 

''ut <>ff Sa^Vi . 









PAGE 


12 


. 13 






, 


13 








13 I 




• 


• 


13 
14 


• 


• 


. 


14 

14 1 

15 1 
15 


• . ■ 15 











INDEX (Continued). 



MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN PLASTERING, 

PAGE 

Internal Plastering, . . .10 
Coarse Stuff, 1G 

Fine Stuff, . . . - . 1G 

Putty, . . . . '. . 16 

Stucco, • 1G 

Lime, ... .17, IS, 20 

Plasler-of- Paris, ... 17, 18 
Laths, ...... 17 

Cements, . . . . . .17 

Calcination, 18 

Quicklime, 18 

Slaking, 18 

Air Slaking 19 

Hydraiiliqjjy, .... 10 
Hydraulic Limes, . . . .20 

Sand, 22 

) OPERATIONS. 

General Instructions, 
Floating the Work, 
Trowelling and Rendering, 
Running Cornices, 
Ornamental Cornices, 
Flowers and Cast Work, 

PLASTERER'S MEASUREMENT. 

l'AGE 

. 44 
44 

. 44 
46 

. 46 
47 



PAGE 

30 
31 
32 
32 
34 
35 



Measuring and Valuation, 

Mensuration of Superfices, . 

Taking Dimensions, 

Specifications, .... 

Rendering to Walls, 

Lath and Plaster Work to Ceilings. 

Lath and Plaster Work to Partitions, 47 

MISCELLANEOUS MEMORANDA 

PAGE 

Hard Hydraulic Cement, . . 54 

Colored' Cements, ... 54 

Brick-Dust Cement, . . .54 

Hardening Plaster, ... 54 

Mastic Cement, . . . .54 

Cement for Outside Brick Walls, 55 

To Mend Plaster Models, . . 55 

Cheap Concrete Flooring, . . 55 

To Make Moulds, . . . .55 

Artificial Building Stone, . . 56 

Artificial Marble, . . . .56 

Hard Mortar, .... 56 

Marble-Worker's Cement, . . 56 

Mason's Cement, .... 57 

Whitewash 57 

Red Wash for Bricks, ... 57 

To Whiten Internal Walls, . . 57 

Concrete, 58 

Papier Mache, 58 

Plaster Ornaments, ... 59 

Fibrous Plaster, . . . .59 

Staining Marble, .... 59 

Cleaning Marble, . . . 59 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS. A to Z, 



Substitutes for Sand, 


PAGE 

23 


Marble Dust, .... 


24 


Hair, . . ; 


24 


Colors, 


24 


Whitewash, .... 


24 


Whiting, . 


25 


Savior's Portland Cement, 


25 


Cellar Floors, , . . . 


25 


Mastic for Plastering, 


25 


Stable Floors, . . . 


25 


Concrete for Foundations, 


26 


Keene's Cement, .... 


27 


Metallic Cement, 


27 


Portland-Cement Stucco, . 


28 


Lias Cement, .... 


28 


Rough Cast, 


29 




PAGE 


External Plastering, . . 35- 


Seagliola, 


41 


Carton Pierre, .... 


42 


Papier Mache, .... 


42 


Stamped Leather, . 


42 


Stearate of Lime, . . . 42^13 




PAGE 


Measuring Cornices, 


47 


Measuring Stucco, 


48 




48 


Summary, 48-50 


Pugging 


50 


Whitewashing and Coloring, . ; 


1-5S 




PAGE 


To Take Wax Moulds from Plaster 


59 


Cement for Mouldings, . 


60 


Cement Floors for Cellars, . 


GO 


Wasb 


CO 


Coloring in Distemper, 


CI 


Mortar, 


61 


Caution, 


61 


Concrete Walls, 


62 


External Stucco, .... 


62 


Proportions of Materials, 


62 


Puzzolana, 


62 




f3 


Weights of Materials, . 


G4 


Items, 


G4 


Cisterns, 


64 


Blackboards, .... 


65 


Measuring Plasterer's Work, 


66 




G7 


Mortars and Cements, . . ' 


7-74 


Concrete Houses. . . . ' 


4-77 


Strength of Different Mortars, . ' 


7-78 


Form of Agreement, 


8-81 




-lOi 



POCKET MANUAL NUMBER ONE; OR, THE 

Writers' and Travellers' Keady Eeference Book 

FOR, EVERY UATiT USE. 

Rev. JOHN M. HERON, A. M., Editor. 

CONTENTS. 



1. Title Page. 

2. Dedication and Copyright. 

3. Editoi-'s Preface. 

4. Contents. 

5. Over 20,000 Synonymous Words. 

6. Foreign Words and Phrases in 

general use. 

7. Domestic and Foreign Postage 

Bates and Laws and Stamp 
Duties. 

8. Value Foreign Coins as per author- 

ized standard U. S. Mint. 
0. Use of Capital Letters. 
id. Utiles for Punctuation. 

11. Abbreviation's and their use. 

12. A Perpetual Calendar. 
];!. An Interest Table. 



n. A Table showing distance of the 
principal American Cities from 
New York, the difference in 
Time, and the preseut Popula- 
tion of Each. 

IB. Our Country and Government; the 
Area of the U. S., how acquired : 
Population of States and Terri- 
tories, Number of Electoral Votes 
each is entitled to, Representa- 
tives, etc.; The Executive and 
Judicial Branches of I be Govern- 
ment, duties of officials, their 
salaries; American Progress, 
etc., ete. 

in. Our Deportment. 

17. A Complete Index. 



Thousands of people have long felt the need of such a work as this. The 
correspondent, student, literary worker, or any person who has any writing to 
do, is coiistanlly annoyed lo think of just the right words to use in order (o 
convey the idea intended and make' a smooth and finished sentence. The 
Writers' and Travellers' Beady Eeference Book contains 20,000 synonymous 
words, alphabetically arranged', and this feature of it not only supplies this often 
much needed word, but it at the same time educates the searcher and enables 
him to express himself verbally with grace and ease. To the writer this list of 
•Synonymous Words is second only to the Spelling Book. The use of Capitals, 
rules for Punctuation aud use of Abbreviations are all-important, and frequently 
a lack of their observance or an ignorance of their proper use turns what '* might 
have been " a successful life into another channel because such things as these 
caused some person to reject the application which otherwise would have been 
the successful turning point in the career of the writer. We cannot always 
carry a Spelling Book or Dictionary with us, and nowhere is information on 
these points so concisely given and so handy for reference as in the Writers' 
and Travellers' Beady Eeference Book. We often spend considerable time 
and go to lots of trouble to ascertain something about Postage Bates. There 
are but few of us who do not. need a list to give us the meaning of Foreign 
Words and Phrases which we constantly come across in reading. A Calendar, 
Interest Table, and table showing the value of Foreign Coins, are all eminently 
practical and useful. All these this little book contains. The one table showing 
at a glance the population of the principal American cities, the distance of each 
from New York City, and the difference in time, is a marvel of condensation, 
and is worth more than the price of the book to any traveller. Under the 
head of " Our Country and Government" is given the pith- of a large volume, 
just such facts as every American ought to'possess, and they can be obtained 
nowhere else for less than four limes the money. 

Good manners and an observance of a tew simple Eules of Etiquette often do 
more towards winning friends and making one happy, than wealth, or the most 
classic education. They always go further than either or both towards making 
a gentleman or lady. Such Gems of Deportment as are of value to all, will be 
found in the " Pocket Manual." 

I^ YOU would perfect and educate yourself in these matters, by all means, 
GET IT. IP Yoxr would save yourself from many annoyances anil much loss 
of time and money, GET IT. IF" you would make an inexpensive, appropriate 
and useful present to any person, GET IT. 

The Pocket Manual is printed from new and perfect plates, on fine tinted paper, 
made expressly for it, bound in Silk Cloth, Flexible Covers, with Ink and Gold 
Side Stamp, Bed Edges. Price 50 cents. 



THE 

MANUAL 



NU5IBKR TWO, 



KEY TO A PROFITABLE OCCUPATION FOR ANY PERSON. 

REY. JOHN M. HERON, A.M., EDITOR. 

TWENTY-FIVE DOLLARS WORTH OP INFORMATION IN THE POCKET. 

CONTENTS. 



How to Become a Short- Hand 
Writer, or complete and practical 
instruction in Phonography, by 
Curtis Haven, Pres't Puilu. College 
of Phonography, etc. 

How to Become a Proof-reader, by 
Joseph Johnson, experienced proof- 
reader. 

How to Become a Telegraph Opera- 
tor, by J. W. Chouse, Ex Supt. Pa. 
R. It. Wires. Eastern Division. 

How to Use a Type- Writer, or simple 
instructions for operating with a 
Writing Machine. By J. W. Earle. 
Pliila. Manager Remington Type- 
Writer Co. 

How to Get a Farm from U. S. By 
Arthur Bradley, Attorney. 

How to Manufacture Super-phos- 
phate of Lime and Guano. By M. 
Franz. Scientist. 

How to Raise Poultry or Poultry and 
Kggs as a Business. Ry M. H. Pen- 
bl :ton, editor " Poultry Messen- 
ger." 

How to Become a Dressmaker. Plain 
directions for learning to do finished 
work for one's self or as a business, 
by Miss Isabel Crawford, Practical 
Dressmaker. 

How to Draw and Paint Flowers, etc., 
from nature or otherwise. By Prof. 
John Collins, Artist. 



The Subscription Book Business. Its 
Influence, Growth, Desirability, etc., 
by W. H. Thompson, Publisher. 

How to Become a Book-keeper and 
Practical Instructions for Book- 
keepers. By Thomas May Peirce, 
M.A., of the Peirce College of Busi- 
ness, Pliila. 

How to Make out Reports and Audit 
Acc'ts of Building Associations, 
what Building Associations are and 
how conducted. By Thomas Gaff- 
ney, Practical Accountant and 
Building Association Expert. 

Directions for Silk Culture, with in- 
structions for raising Worms, spin- 
ning Cocoons, etc., by Mrs. M. E. 
Cunningham, assisted by the silk 
Culture Association. 

Collecting Old Coins. Tables of dif- 
ferent, coins with market prices, etc. 
By G. L. Fancher. Numismatist. 

Stamps Collecting, and How to Buy 
and Sell Stamps. By L. W. Durbin. 
Philatelist, and Stamp Dealer. 

How to Make Soap. By Frank P. 
Harmed, Chemist of the Penn 
Chemical Works. 

Ambition, Enterprise and Integrity. 
By Rev. John M. Heron, A.M. 

Table of Wages by the Month. From 
the American Home and Farm Cy- 
clopaedia. 



Every Article, with the exception of one or two of the less important ones, 
is original, ami has been prepared with the utmost care by a person of par- 
ticular experience, reputation and ability for the subject. »So much original 
matter and so able a corps of writers was never before presented in a book of 
the size and price. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. Several articles have been illustrated at a heavy ex- 
pense. The lessons in short hand were produced by photo-engraving from 
pen drawings 16 times the size. There are some 25 of these. I'rof. Collins' 
and Attorney Bradley's articles are most tastily and beautifully illustrated. 

The skill of the engraver has been required in rendering complete several 
other features. 

The Pocket Manual is printed on the finest rose tint paper, made expressly 
for it, from new and perfect plates, with a rule around each page, contains 221 
pages. 

Price, Bound in Finest English Cloth, Bed Edges. Gold Side Stamp, SO cents. 



A New Book for Bee-Keepers. 

A Dictionary of Practical Apiculture, giving the correct mean- 
ing of nearly Five Hundred Terms, according to the usage of 
the best writers. Intended as a Guide to Uniformity of Ex- 
pression amongst Bee-Keepers. With Numerous Illustra- 
tions, Notes, and Practical Hints. By John Phin, Author of 
"How to Use the Microscope," etc. Editor of the "Young 
Scientist." Price, Cloth, Gilt, 50 cts. 

This work gives not only the correct meaning of five hundred different 
■words, specially used in bee-keeping, but an immense amount of valuable 
information under the different headings. The labor expended upon it has 
been very great, the definitions having been gathered from the mode in 
•which the words are used by our best writers on bee-keeping, and from the 
Imperial, Richardson's, Skeat's, Webster's, Worcester's and other English 
Dictionaries. The technical information relating to matters connected with 
bee-keeping has been gathered from the Technical Dictionaries of Brande, 
Muspratt, Ure, Wagner, Watts, and others. Under the heads Bee, Comb, 
Glucose, Honey, Race, Species, Sugar, Wax and others, it brings together a 
large number of important facts and figures which are now scattered 
through our bee-literature, and through costly scientific works, and are not 
easily found when wanted. Here they can be referred to at once under the 
proper head. 

How to Become a Good Mechanic. 

Intended as a Practical Guide to Self-taught Men ; telling 
What to Study ; What Books to Use ; How to Begin ; What 
Difficulties will be Met; How to Overcome them. In a word, 
how to carry on such a Course of Self-instruction as will en- 
able the Young Mechanic to Kise from the Bench to some- 
thing higher. Paper, - 15 cts. 

This is not a book of " goody-goody " advice, neither is it an advertise- 
ment of any special system, nor does it advocate any hobby. It gives plain, 
practical advice in regard to acquiring that knowledge which alone can 
enable a young man engaged in any profession or occupation connected 
with the industrial arts to attain a position higher than that of a mere 
workman. 

The Horse. 

A Treatise on the Horse and his Diseases. By J. B. Kendall, 

M.D. 76 Engravings. Paper, 20 cts. 

A Treatise giving an index of diseases, and the symptoms; cause and 
treatment of each, a table giving all the principal drugs used for the horse, 
with the ordinary dose, effects and antidote when a poison ; a table with an 
engraving of the horse's teeth at different ages, with rules for telling the 
age of the horse ; a valuable collection of recipes, and much valuable in- 
formation. 






Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes. 

By the Eev. T. W. Webb, M.A., F.K.A.S. Fourth Edi- 
tion, Eevised and Greatly Enlarged. Fully Illustrated 
with Engravings and a large Map of the Moon. 
Cloth, $3.00 

This edition has been made for us by the English publishers, and 
is in every respect the same as the English edition. The work itself 
is too well known to require commendation at our hands. Wo one 
that owns even the commonest kind of a telescope can afford to do 
without it 

"Many things, deemed invisible to secondary instruments, are 
plain enough to one who ' knows how to see them.' "— Smyth. 

" When an object is once discerned by a superior power, an inferior 
one will suffice to see it afterwards."— Sib. W. Heeschel. 

Chemical History of the Six Days of Creation. 

By John Phin, Editor of the " American Journal of 
Microscopy " and the " Young Scientist." 
12 rno., Cloth, - - - - 75 cents. 

In this volume an attempt is made to trace the evolution of our 
globe from the primeval state of nebulous mist, " without form and 
void," and existing in "darkness," or with an entire absence of the 
manifestations of the physical forces, to the condition in which it was 
fitted to become the habitation of man. While the statements and 
conclusions are rigidly scientific, it gives some exceedingly novel 
views of a rather hackneyed subject. 

Ponds and Ditches. 

A "Work on Pond Life and Kindred Objects. By M. C. 

Cooke, M.A., LL.D. Cloth, l2rno., - - 75 cents. 

This is a most interesting volume by a well-known author and 
microscopist. It is very freely illustrated with engravings of the 
objects usually found in pond water. 

Microscopical Examination of Drinking Water. 

A Guide to the Microscopical Examination of Drinking 
Water. By J. D. McDonald. v t 

8vo., Cloth 3 21 plates, = - ■> - $2.75 



4. NEW SERIES OF PRACTICAL BOOKS. 

WORK MANUALS. 

The intention of the publishers is to give m this Series a number of small books which 
will give Thorough and Reliable Information in the plainest possible language, upon the 

AUTS of everyday life. 

Each volume will be by some one who is not only practically familiar with his subject, 
but who has the ability to make it clear to others. The volumes will each contain from 
50 to 75 pages , will be neatly and clearly printed on good paper and bound in tough 
and durable binding. The price will be 25 cents each, or five for One Dollar, 

The following are the tides of the volumes already issued. Others will follow at 
short intervals. 

I. Cements and Glue. 

A Practical Treatise on the Preparation and Use of All Kinds of Cements, Glue 
and Paste. By John Phin, Editor of the Young Scientist and the A merican 
yoitrnal of Microscopy. 
Every mechanic and householder will find this volume of almost everyday use. It 

contains nearly 200 recipes for the preparation of Cements for almost every conceivable 

purpose. 

II. The Slide Rule, and How to Use It. 

This is a compilation of Explanations, Rules and Instructions suitable for mechanics 
And others interested in the industrial arts. Rules are given for the measurement of 
all kinds of boards and planks, timber in the round or square, glaziers' work and paint- 
ing, brickwork, paviors' work, tiling and slating, the measurement of vessels of various 
shapes, the wedge, inclined planes, wheels and axles, levers, the weighing and meas- 
urement of metals and all solid bodies, cylinders, cones, globes, octagon rules and 
formulae, the measurement of circles, and a comparison of French and English measures, 
with much other information, useful to builders, carpenters, bricklayers, glaziers, 
paviors, slaters, machinists and other mechanics. 

Possessed of this little Book and a good Slide Rule, mechanics might carry in their 
pockets some hundreds ot times the power of calculation that they now have in their 
heads, and the use of the instrument is very easily acquired. 

III. Hints for Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers. 

Being a selection of Useful Rules, Data, Memoranda, Methods and Suggestions 
for House, Ship, and Furniture Painting, Paperhanging, Gilding, Color Mixing, 
and other matters Useful and Instructive to Painters and Decorators. Prepared 
with Special Reference to the Wants of Amateurs. By an Old Hand. 

IV. Construction, Use and Care of Drawing Instruments. 

Being a Treatise on Draughting Instruments, with Rules for their Use and Care, 
Explanations of Scale;, Sectors and Protractors. Together with Memoranda for 
Draughtsmen, Hints on Purchasing Paper, Ink, Instruments, Pencils, etc. Also a 
Price List of all materials required by Draughtsmen. Illustrated with twenty-four 
Explanatory Illustrations. By Fred. T. Hodgson. 

V. The Steel Square. ** *"" 

Some Difficult Problems in Carpentry and Joinery Simplified and Solved by the 
aid of the Carpenters' Steel Square, together with a Full Description of the Tool, 
and Explanations of the Scales, Lines and Figures on the Blade and Tongue, and 
HowtoUse them in Everyday Work. Showing how the Square may be Used 
in Obtaining the Lengths and Bevels of Rafters, Hips, Groins, Braces, Brackets, 
Purlins, Collar-Beams and Jack-Rafters. Also, its Application in Obtaining 
the Bevels and Cuts for Hoppers, Spring Mouldings, Octagons, Diminished 
Styles, etc., etc. Illustrated by Numerous Wood-cuts. By Fred. T. Hodgson, 
Author of the "Carpenters' Steel Square." '. 

Note, — This work is intended as an elementary introduction for the use of those who 
have not time to study Mr. Hodgson's larger work on the same subject. __ 



FOURTH EDITION. Greatly Enlarged, with over So illustrations in the Text 
and 6 full page Engravings, printed on Heavy Tint Paper, i Vol. \imo. y 240 
p.tges. Neatly Bound in Cloth, Gilt Title. Pfice$i.oo. 

HOW TO USE THE MICROSCOPE. 

A SIMPLE AND PRACTICAL BOOK, INTENDED FOR EEGINNERS. 

By JOHN PHIN, 
Editor of " T/ie American Journal of Microscopy." 



CONDENSED TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

The Microscope. — What it Is; What it Does; Different Kinds of Microscopes; 
1 rinciplesof its Construct on ; Names of the Different Parts. 

Simple Microscopes. —Hand Magnifiers; Doublets; Power of Two or More 
Lenses When Used Together; Stanhope Lens; Coddington Lens; Achromatic 
Doublets and Trip'ets ; Twenty-five Cent Microscopes — and How to Make Them; 
Penny Microscopes, to Show Eels in Paste and Vinegar. 

Dissecting Microscopes. — Essentials of a Good Dissecting Microscope. 

Compound Microscopes. — Cheap Foreign Siands; The Ross Model; The Jackson 
Model; The Continental Model; The New American Model; Cheap American 
Stands; The Binocular Microscope; The Binocular Eye-piece; The Inverted Micro- 
scope; Lithological Microscopes; The Aquarium Microscope; Microscopes for 
Special Purpo-es; "Class" Microscopes. 

Objectives. — Defects of Common Lenses; Spherical Aberration; Chromatic do. ; 
Corrected Objectives; Defining Power ; Achromatism; Aberration of Form ; Flatness 
o( Field; Angular Aperture; Penetrating Power ' Working Distance; Immersion and 
"Homogeneous" Lenses; Duplex Fronts; French Triplets, etc., etc. 

Testing Objectives. — General Rules; Accepted Standards — Diatoms, Ruled 
Lines, Artificial Star; Podura; Nobert's Lines; Moller's Probe Platte, etc., etc. 

Selection of a Microscope — Must be Adapted to Requirements and Skill of 
User; Microscopes for Botany; For Physicians; For Students. 

Accessory Apparatus. — Stage Forceps; Forceps Carrier; Plain Slides; Concave 
Slides; Watch-Glass Holder; Animalcule Cage; Zoophyte Trough; The Weber Slide; 
The Cell-Trough; The Compressorium ; Gravity Compressorium; Growing Slides; 
Frog Plate; Table; Double Nose-piece. 

Illumination. — Sun-Light; Artificial Light — Candles, Gas, Lamps, etc., etc. 

Illumination of Opaque Objects. — Bulls-Eye Condenser; Side Reflector; The 
Lieberkuhn; The Parabolic Reflector; Vertical Illuminators. 

Illumination of Transparent Objects. — Direct and Reflected Light; Axial or 
Central Ligh ; Oblique Light; The Achromatic Condenser; The Webster Condenser, 
and How to Useif ; Wenham's Reflex Illuminator, and How to Use it; The Wenham 
Prism ; The " Half-Button ; " The Woodward Illuminator; Tolles' Illuminating 
Traverse Lens; The Spot Lens; The Parabolic Illuminator; Polarized Light. 

How to Use the Microscope. — General Rules; Hints to Beginners. 

How to Use Objectives of Large Aperture. — Collar-Correction, etc. 

Care of the Microscope. — Should be Kept Covered; Care of Objectives ; Pre- 
cautions tc be Used when Corrosive Vapors and Liquids are Employed ; To Protect 
th Objectives from Vapors which Corrode Glass ; Cleaning the Objectives ; Cleaning 
th Brass Work. 

Collecting Obtects. — Where to Find Objects ; What to Look for ; How to Capture 
Them. 

The Preparation and Examination of Objects.— Cutting Thin Sections of 
So r Substances; Valentine's Knife; Sections of Wood and Bone; Improved Section 
Cutter; Sections of Rock; Knives; Scissors; Needles; Dissecting Pans and Dishes; 
Dissecting Microscopes ; Separation of Deposits from Liquids ; Preparing, Whole 
Insects; Feet, Eyes, Tongues, Wings, etc , of Insects; Use of Chemical Tests; Liquids 
for Moistening Objects; Refractive Powers of Different Liquids ; Iod-Serum ; Artifici?* 
_od-Serum; Covers for Keeping Out Dust; Errors in Microscopic Observations. 

Preservative Processes. — General Principles; Preservative Media. 

Apparatus for Mounting Objects. — Slides; Covers; Cells; Turn-Tables, etc. 

Cements and Varnishes. — General Rules for Using. 

Mounting Objects. — Mounting Transparent Objects Dry; in Balsam; in Liquid** 
Whole Insects; How to Get Rid of Air-Bubbles ; Mounting Opaque Objects. ^ 

Finishing the Slides. — Cabinets; Maltwood Finder; Microscopical Fallacies, - 



How to Put Up a Lightning Rod. 

Plain Directions for the Construction and Erection of 
Lightning Bods. By John Phin, C.E., editor of the 
"Young Scientist," author of "Chemical History of 1 he 
Six Days of the Creation," etc. Second Edition. En- 
larged and Fully Illustrated. 12 mo., Cloth, Gilt 
Title, .-.-.. 50 cents. 

This is a simple and practical little work, intended to convey just 
such information as will enable every property owner to decide whether 
or not his buildings are thoroughly protected. It is not written in the 
interest of any patent or particular article of manufacture, and by fol- 
lowing its directions, any ordinarily skilful mechanic can put up a rod 
that will afford perfect protection, and that will not infringe any patent. 
Every owner of a house or barn ought to procure a copy. 

Lectures in a Workshop. 

By T. P. Pemberton, formerly Associate Editor of the 
"Technologist;" Author of "The Student's Illustrated 
Guide to Practical Draughting." With an appendix con- 
taining the famous papers by Whitworth "On Plane 
Metallic Surfaces or True Planes;" "On an Uniform 
System of Screw Threads ; " " Address to the Institution 
of Mechanical Engineers, Glasgow;" "On Standard 
Decimal Measures of Length." 12 mo., Cloth, Gilt, $1.00 

We have here a sprightly fascinating book, full of valuable hints, 
interesting anecdotes and sharp sayings. It is not a compilation of 
dull sermons or dry mathematics, but a live, readable book. The 
papers by Whitworth, now first made accessible to the American 
reader, form the basis of our modern systems of accurate work. 

Mechanical Draughting for Self-Taught Students. 

The Student's Illustrated Guide to Practical Draught- 
ing. A series of Practical Instructions for Machinists, 
Mechanics, Apprentices, and Students at Engineering 
Establishments and Technical Institutes. By T. P. 
Pemberton, Draughtsman and Mechanical Engi- 
neer. Illustrated with Numerous Engravings. Cloth 
Gilt, $1.00 

This is a simple but. thorough book by a draughtsman of twenty-five 
years' experience. It is intended for beginners and self-taught stu- 
dents, as well as for those who pursue the study under the direction of 
a teacher. 



The Engineer's Slide Rule and Its Applications. 

A Complete Investigation of the Principles upon which 
the Slide Kule is Constructed, together with the Method 
of its Application to all the Purposes of the Practical 
Mechanic. By William Tonkes. - - 25 cents. 

Rhymes of Science : Wise and Otherwise. 

By O. W. Holmes, Bret Harte, Ingoldsby, Prof. Forbes, 
Prof. J. W. McQ. Kankine, Hon. K. W. Baymond, and 
others. With Illustrations. Cloth, Gilt Title, 50 cents. 

"We advise all our readers into whose souls the sunlight of fun ever 
enters to purchase this little book. " Making light of cereous things " 
has been said, by a high authority, to be " a, wicked profession." but tho 
genius which can balance tho ponderosity of an ichthyosaur upon tho 
delicate point of a euphonious rhyme, or bear aloft a bulky lepto- 
rhyncus on the sparkling foam of a soul-stirring love ditty, is worthy- 
worthy of a purchaser.— Philadelphia Medical News. 

Instruction in the Art of Wood Engraving. 

A Manual of Instruction in the Art of Wood Engraving ; 
with a Description of the Necessary Tools and Apparatus, 
and Concise Directions for their Use; Explanation of 
the Terms Used, and the Methods Employed for Pro- 
ducing the Various Classes of Wood Engravings. By 
S. E. Puller. Fully Illustrated with Engravings by the 
author, separate sheets of engravings for transfer 
and practice being added. New Edition, Neatly 
Bound, ...... 30 cents. 

What to Do in Case of Accident. 

What to Do and How to Do It in Case of Accident. A 
Book for Everybody. 12 mo., Cloth, Gilt Title, 50 cents. 

This is one of the most useful books ever published. It tells exactly 
what to do in case of accidents, such as Severe Cuts, Sprains, Disloca- 
tions, Broken Bones, Burns with Fire, Scalds, Burns with Corrosive 
Chemicals, Sunstroke, Suffocation by Foul Air, Hanging, Drowning, 
Frost-Bite, Fainting, Stings, Bites, Starvation, Lightning. Poisons, 
Accidents from Machinery and from the Falling of Scaffolding, Gun- 
shot Wounds, etc., etc. It ought to be in every house, for young and 
old are liable to accident, and the directions given in this book might 
be the means of saving many a valuable life, 



Section Cutting. 

A Practical Guide to the Preparation and Mounting ci 
flections for the Microscope ; Special Prominence being 
^iven to the Subject of Animal Sections By Sylvester 
" JUarsh. Reprinted from the London edition. With 
Illustrations. 12mo., Cloth, Gilt Title. » 75 cents. 

This is undoubtedly the most thorough treatise extant upon sectioi. 
cutting m all its details. The American edition has been greatly 
enlarged by valuable explanatory notes, and also by extended direc- 
tions, illustrated -with engravings, for selecting and sharpening 
knives and razors. 

A Book for Beginners with the Microscope. 

Being an abridgment of " Practical Hints on the Selection 
\ind Use of the Microscope." ByJohnPhin. Pully illus- 
trated, and neatly and strongly bound in boards. 30 cts. 
This book was prepared for the use of those who, having no know- 
lodge of the use of the microscope, or, indeed, of any scientific appar- 
atus, desire simple and practical instruction in the best methods oi 
managing the instrument and preparing objects. 

How to Use the Microscope. 

" Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Micro- 
scrope." Intended for Beginners. By John Phin, 
Editor of the "American Journal of Microscopy." 
Fourth Edition. Greatly enlarged, with over 80 engrav- 
ings in the text, and 6 full-page engravings, printed on 
heavy tint paper. 12mo., cloth, gilt title, - $1.00 

The Microscope. 

By Andrew Boss. Eully Illustrated. 12mo., Cloth, 
Gilt Title. - - - " - - 75 cents. 

This is the celebrated article contributed by Andrew Ross to the 
"Penny Cyclopaedia," and quoted so frequently by writers on the 
Microscope. Carpenter and Hogg, in the last editions of then works 
on the Microscope, and Brooke, in his treatise on Natural Philoso- 
phy, all refer to this article as the best source for full and clear 
information in regard to the principles upon which the modcrr 
achromatic Microscope is constructed. It should bo in the library 
of every person to whom the Microscope is more than a toy. It ie 
written in simple language, free from abstruse technicalities. 



NEW DESIGNS 

FOK 

Fret or Scroll Sawyers. 



MR. F. T. HODGSON, whose admirable series of articles on the USE OF THE 
SCROLL SAW are now in course of publication in the Young Scientist, has pre- 
pared for us a series of 

SEVENTEEN DESIGNS, 

of which the following is a list : 

No. i. — This shows one side, back, and bottom, of a pen rack. It may be made 
of ebony, walnut, or other dark wood. 

No. 2. — Design for inlaying drawer fronts, table tops, box lids, and many other 
things. It is a sumach leaf pattern. 

No. 3. — Design for a thermometer stand. It maybe made of any hard wood or 
alabaster. The method of putting together is obvious. 

No. 4. — This shows a design for a lamp screen. The open part may be covered 
with tinted silk, or other suitable material, with some appropriate device worked on 
with the needle, or, if preferred, ornaments may be painted on the silk, etc. 

No. 5. — A case for containing visiting cards. Will look best made of white holly. 

No. 6. — A placque stand, it may be made of any kind of dark or medium wood. 

No. 7. — A design for ornaments suitable for a window cornice. It should be 
made o€ black walnut, and overlaid on some light colored hard wood. 

No. 8 — A design for a jewel casket. This will be very pretty made of white holly 
and lined with blue velvet. It also looks well made of ebony lined with crimson. 

No. 9. — Frame. Will look well made of any dark wood. 

No. 10. — Frame. Intended to be made in pairs. Looks well made of white holly, 
with leaves and flowers painted on wide stile. 

No. n. — Horseshoe. Can be made of any kind of wood and used for a pen rack. 
When decorated with gold and colors, looks very handsome. 

No. iz. — Design for a hinge strap. If made of black walnut, and planted on a 
white or oaken door, will look well. 

No. 13. — Design for a napkin ring. May be made of any kind of hard wood. £ 

No. 14.— Hinge strap for doors with narrow stiles. 

No. 15. — Centre ornament for panel. 

No. 16. — Corner ornament for panel. 

No. 17. — Key-hole escutcheon. 

These designs we have had photo-lithographed and printed on good paper, so that 
the outlines are sharp, and the opposite sides of each design symmetrical. Common 
designs are printed from coarse wooden blocks, and are rough and unequal, so that 
it is often impossible to make good work from them. 

The series embraces over forty different pieces, and designs of equal quality cannot 
be had for less than five, ten or fifteen cents each. We offer them for twenty-five 
(eats for the set, which is an average price of only one cent and a half each. 

Mailed to any address on receipt of price, 




SHEET NO. I. 




SHEET NO. 2. 



REDUCED FIGURES OF 

NEW DESIGNS FOR FRET OR SCROLL SAWYERS. 

SIZE OF SHEETS 28 BY 22 INCHES. 

[For description see preeeding page.) 








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